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Anatomy and Physiology of Animals, Blood Pressure - Coggle Diagram
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals
Chapter 42
42.1: Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body
Diffusion: random thermal motion
Small molecules in and around cells use this process
An adaption of this includes a simple body plan that places many or all cells in direct contact with the environment
Gastrovascular Cavities: A central cavity with a single opening that functions in the distribution of substances throughout the body, as well as in digestion
Circulatory systems
three basic components: a circulatory fluid, a set of interconnecting vessels, and a muscular pump, and the heart.
Open Circulatory system
the circulatory fluid, called hemolymph, is also the interstitial fluid that bathes body cells directly with no distinction between circulating and interstitial fluid
Arthropods, such as grasshoppers, and some molluscs, including clams
Closed Circulatory System
a circulatory fluid called blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid
Cardiovascular system
the heart and blood vessels in vertebrates
Arteries, Veins, capillaries
Arteries: Carry blood away from heart
Veins: Carry blood towards the heart
Single circulation
Single pump and circuit, blood passes from site of gas exchange to rest of the body then the heart
sharks, rays, and bony fishes
Double Circulatory system
Separate pulmonary and systemic circuits; blood passes through heart after each circuit
amphibians, reptiles, and mammals
42.2: Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals
Mammalian circulation
The cardiac cycle
One complete sequence of pumping and filling
The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle. When it contracts, it pumps blood; when it relaxes, its chambers fill with blood
Cardiac output
The volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute
Heart murmur
blood squirts backward through a defective valve
Electrocardiogram:
electrodes placed on the skin record the currents, thus measuring electrical activity of the heart
SA node produces electrical impulses
42.3: Patterns of blood pressure and flow reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels
Endothelium
a single layer of flattened epithelial cells
Blood Vessels
Capillaries
are the smallest blood vessel
have very thin walls
Where the exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid occurs
Arteries
Arterial walls are thick, strong, and elastic
accommodate blood pumped at high pressure by the heart
smooth muscles in the walls of arteries and arterioles help regulate the path of blood flow
Veins
convey blood back to the heart at a lower pressure
a wall only about a third as thick as that of an artery
Lymphatic system
The lost fluid and the proteins within it are recovered and returned to the blood via the lymphatic system
lymph circulates within the lymphatic system before draining into a pair of large veins of the cardiovascular system at the base of the neck
42.4: Blood components function in exchange, transport, and defense
Plasma
ions and proteins that, together with the blood cells, function in osmotic regulation, transport, and defense
contains many other substances in transit, including nutrients, metabolic wastes, respiratory gases, and hormones.
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells
O2 transport
Contains hemoglobin
small, thin disks
Leukocytes
Fights infections
phagocytic: engulfing and digesting microorganisms and debris from the body’s own dead cells
lymphocytes: mount immune responses against foreign substances
Platelets
pinched-off cytoplasmic fragments of specialized bone marrow cells
cardiovascular diseases
Atherosclerosis, Heart Attacks, and Stroke
42.5: Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces
Partial Pressure
the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases
Gills
outfoldings of the body surface that are suspended in the water
ventilation, maintains the partial pressure gradients of and across the gill that are necessary for gas exchange
Lungs
localized respiratory organs
infolded respiratory surface of a terrestrial vertebrate
42.6: Breathing ventilates the lungs
Positive Pressure Breathing
How an amphibian breathes
Air is forced into the lunges
Negative pressure breathing
pulling, rather than pushing, air into their lungs
How a mammal breathes
The pH of your blood regulates your breathing; High CO2=More breaths taken for more oxygen
46.7: Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases
Respiratory pigments
A protein that transports oxygen in the blood
circulate with the blood or hemolymph and are often contained within specialized cells
Carbon dioxide transport
7% of the released by respiring cells is transported in solution in blood plasma.
Evolutionary Mammal Adaptions
prolonged stays underwater is a capacity to store large amounts of in their bodies.
Mammalian Diving Reflex
All mammals, including humans, have a diving reflex triggered by a plunge or fall into water
the face contacts cold water, the heart rate immediately decreases and blood flow to body extremities is reduced
Chapter 43
43.1: innate immunity, recognition and response rely on traits common to groups of pathogens
Lysozyme: an enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls, further protects the insect digestive system.
phagocytosis
Like amoebas, some hemocytes ingest and break down microorganisms
Hemocytes: The major immune cells of insects
Innate defenses
Skin Barriers
Skin
Keratin, Sebum, Acid
Mucus Membranes
Cilia, Antimicrobial proteins, lysozymes, HCl
Internal Defenses
Phagocytes
Neutrophils, eosinophils, mast cells, Kupffer cells, microglia
Fever
pyrogens, stimulates high metabolism, damages pathogens
NK cells
Secrete perforins, cytolyses, histamines, cytokines, activated by viruses
Antimicrobial proteins
Interferon: makes cells resistant to viral reproduction
Inflammation
Response to infection causing dilation of blood vessels, redness, pain, swelling, release of white blood cells
43.2: adaptive immunity, receptors provide pathogen-specific recognition
Adaptive Defenses
Humoral Immunity
B cells
clones itself, makes plasma proteins, or memory B cells to remember pathogen
Antibody mediated: triggered by antigens complete, incomplete, antigenic determinants, and self-antigens
Cellular Immunity
T Cells
When activated by antigen, stimulates macrophages to hunt and destroy pathogen
APCs present antigens to T and B cells to find the right match to start cloning process
Immunological Memory
responsible for the long-term protection that a prior infection provides against many diseases
Primary immune response
Initial response to antigen; 10-17 days after exposure
Secondary immune response
response that is faster (typically peaking only 2–7 days after exposure), of greater magnitude, and more prolonged
43.3: Adaptive immunity defends against infection of body fluids and body cells
Humoral immune response
occurs in the blood and lymph; antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in body fluids
Cell-mediated immune response
specialized T cells destroy infected host cells
Helper T cell
activates humoral and cell-mediated immune responses
Antibody function
do not directly kill pathogens; bind to antigens, and interfere with pathogen activity or mark pathogens in various ways for inactivation or destruction
Cytotoxic T cells
use toxic proteins to kill cells infected by viruses or other intracellular pathogens before pathogens fully mature
require signals from helper T cells and interaction with an antigen-presenting cell
Immunity
Immunization
carried out with vaccines
Use inactivated bacterial toxins, killed or weakened pathogens, and even genes encoding microbial proteins
the use of antigens artificially introduced into the body to generate an adaptive immune response and memory cell formation
Active Immunity
defenses that arise when a pathogen infection or immunization prompts an immune response
Passive immunity
IgG antibodies in the blood of a pregnant female cross the placenta to her fetus
Monoclonal antibodies
provided the basis for many recent advances in medical diagnosis and treatment
antibodies prepared from a single clone of B cells grown in culture
43.4: Disruptions in immune system function can elicit or exacerbate disease
Allergies
responses to certain antigens called allergens
Drugs known as antihistamines block receptors for histamine, diminishing allergy symptoms
Autoimmune Diseases
the immune system is active against particular molecules of the body
Heredity, gender, and environment all influence susceptibility to autoimmune disorders
Immunodeficiency Diseases
disorder in which an immune system response to antigens is defective or absent
inborn immunodeficiency results from a genetic or developmental defect in the production of immune system cells
Evolutionary Adaptions of Pathogens that Underlie Immune System Avoidance
Antigenic Variation
mechanism for escaping the body’s defenses is for a pathogen to alter how it appears to the immune system
main reason theflu remains a major public health problem
undergoes frequent mutations
Latency: viruses avoid an immune response by infecting cells and then entering a largely inactive state
HIV: escapes and attacks the adaptive immune response
AIDS: impairment in immune responses that leaves the body susceptible to infections and cancers that a healthy immune system would usually defeat
Blood Pressure
Homeostatic mechanisms regulate arterial blood pressure by altering the diameter of arterioles
Vasoconstriction: increases blood pressure upstream in the arteries
vasodilation: an increase in diameter that causes blood pressure in the arteries to fall
flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure
Systolic Pressure: when the heart contracts during ventricular systole
Diastolic Pressure: the elastic walls of the arteries snap back