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Animal Physiology Part 2 - Coggle Diagram
Animal Physiology Part 2
The Immune System (Ch 43)
In innate immunity, recognition and response rely on traits common to groups of pathogens
Innate Immunity
: The body’s first line of defense that provides a nonspecific, immediate response to pathogens by recognizing molecular patterns shared by groups of microbes rather than individual antigens
Chemical defenses
: Antimicrobial proteins (attack pathogens), Interferons (help to limit viral replication.)
Cellular defenses
: Phagocytic cells (engulf and destroy invaders), Natural killer (NK) cells (destroy virus-infected or cancerous cells)
Barrier defenses
: Skin, mucous membranes, and secretions (prevent pathogen entry)
Types of innate immune responses:
In adaptive immunity, receptors provide pathogen-specific recognition
Adaptive immunity
: Protects the body by targeting specific pathogens in both body fluids and body cells, using specialized lymphocytes (B cells and T cells).
This allows for a targeted immune response and the development of immunological memory for faster responses upon future exposure
Humoral immunity (B cells)
:
B cell receptors recognize antigens and produce antibodies that circulate in body fluids, binding to pathogens to neutralize or mark them to be destroyed
Cell-mediated immunity (T cells)
:
T cell receptors recognize antigens displayed on infected or abnormal cells and either kill those cells or coordinate other immune responses.
Adaptive immunity defends against infection of body fluids and body cells
When Humoral immunity is activated, B cells produce antibodies that circulate in blood and lymph
This branch mainly targets extracellular pathogens (like bacteria and viruses in body fluids)
Cell-mediated immunity:
Cytotoxic T cells recognize and destroy infected or abnormal body cells: Helper T cells support both T and B cell activation by releasing signaling molecules (cytokines).
This branch targets intracellular pathogens hiding inside host cells.
Disruptions in immune system function can elicit or exacerbate disease
If the balance in the immune system is disrupted, it can lead to disease or increased vulnerability to infection.
Types of immune system disruptions:
Immunodeficiency
: The immune system is underactive or weakened
Autoimmune diseases
: The immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s own cells as if they were foreign.
Allergies
: The immune system reacts too strongly to harmless substances
Chronic inflammation
: Prolonged or uncontrolled activation of immune responses can damage tissues and worsen diseases
Can worsen diseases like heart disease or inflammatory bowel disease
Pollen, Nuts, Bee stings
Type 1 diabetes, Rheumatoid arthritis, Multiple sclerosis
Acquired: HIV/AIDS. Inherited: SCID
Circulation and Gas Exchange (Ch 42)
Circulation
Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body
The circulatory system transports materials between these exchange surfaces and the body’s cells.
It ensures that oxygen and nutrients reach all cells and that carbon dioxide and other wastes are carried away for excretion
Exchange surfaces are specialized areas where materials are exchanged between the body and the environment
Lungs/gills
: Exchange gases with blood.
Intestines
: Absorb nutrients into blood.
Kidneys
: Remove wastes from blood.
Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals
Each heartbeat consists of two main phases:
Systole:
The heart contracts, pumping blood out.
Diastole:
the heart relaxes, allowing it to fill with blood again.
Mammals have a double circulatory system, meaning blood passes through the heart twice in each complete circuit around the body:
Pulmonary circulation:
The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Systemic circulation:
The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
Patterns of blood pressure and flow reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels
Arteries:
Thick, muscular, and elastic walls; Carry blood
away
from the heart under high pressure
Highest pressure; Fastest flow of blood.
Veins:
Thinner walls; Carry blood
back to
the heart under low pressure.
Lowest pressure and steady, smooth flow
Capillaries:
One cell thick; Exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood and tissues.
Arterioles:
Smaller branches of arteries with muscular walls that can constrict or dilate; Control blood flow into capillary beds
Blood components function in exchange, transport, and defense
Plasma:
The liquid portion of blood (about 55%)
Exchange & transport: Carries nutrients, hormones, wastes, and heat.
Erythrocytes:
Small, disc-shaped cells that do not have nuclei; filled with hemoglobin
Transport: Carry oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.
Leukocytes:
Larger, less numerous cells with nuclei
Defense: Protect the body against pathogens, foreign substances, and abnormal cells
Platelets:
Small cell fragments from bone marrow
Defense & repair: Help form blood clots to prevent blood loss and block entry of pathogens at injury sites
Gas Exchange
Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces
Diffusion across the body surface: sponges, cnidarians, flatworms
Gills: fish, amphibian larvae, and many invertebrates
Tracheal systems (tracheal tubes, spiracles): insects
Lungs: amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
Breathing ventilates the lungs
Inhalation:
The diaphragm contracts and moves downward
Air flows
into
the lungs because air moves from higher pressure (outside) to lower pressure (inside)
Exhalation:
The diaphragm relaxes and moves upward
The volume of the chest cavity decreases, increasing pressure inside the lungs.
Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases
Increase oxygen-carrying capacity
Facilitate diffusion gradients
Aid CO₂ transport
Their main functions are to:
Hemoglobin: Bright red; binds 4 O₂ molecules
Myoglobin: Dark Red; Stores O₂ in muscles for use during intense activity