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The different types of system - Coggle Diagram
The different types of system
Chapter 42
42.4
Plasma
Liquid matrix of blood in which the blood cells are suspended
Osmosis and blood pressure move it out from the blood vessels
When the fluid is moved out it ends up between the tissues
Fluid goes to lymph vessels and is moved by skeletal muscles
Plasma is called Interstitial fluid
If the fluid doesn't get moved back into the blood stream it causes Edema (Swelling)
Elephantiasis is caused by worms that block the flow of lymphtatic fluid
Swollen glands are caused when the lymph nodes swell with white blood cells
Cellular Elements
The fluid and cellular components of blood are the Plasma and Platelets
Plasma: Water, Ions, Proteins, Hormones, Anti-bodies, Carbon Dioxide, Nutrients, and Poop
Leukocytes
Fight Infections
Erythrocytes
Carry oxygen
Platelets
Structural and signaling functions in Blood clotting
Erythrocytes, Leukocytes, and Platelets are all produced in the red bone marrow
45% of Blood is cellular
Red blood cells survive for about 3 months depending on how healthy the person is
The reason for this is that there are sacks of hemoglobin that break down which cause red blood cells to be constantly made
Sickle-cell disease
Blood cells are curved to look like bannanas
Genetic disorder
To get both parents must be carriers
Cause the red blood cells to carry less oxygen and blocks the tubes (can't go thru body as easy)
In some places it persists for instance places that have Maleria
Maleria gets into your blood stream however it does not affect ppl that have sickle-cell
We don't deal with maleria so it has no benefits in America
Cardiovascular Disease
Atherosclerosis
Hardening of Arteries by accumulation of fatty deposits
HDL
High density and its good since it scavenges excess cholesterol
LDL
Low Density Lipoprotein and it adds cholesterol to the cell membranes
Myocardial Infraction (Heart attack) is caused when the arteries that feed the heart get blocked or burst
Hypertension
High blood pressure
Smoking, being lazy, bad diet, not taking medication can cause this
Can be reduced by not smoking, being active, good diet, taking medications
42.5 Different types of respiratory surfaces
Gas exchange: uptake of molecular oxygen from the environment and the discharge of carbon dioxide to the environment
Partial pressure: The pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases
Gas always undergoes gas exchange net diffusion form a place with higher pp to low pp
Increase in higer pp or decrease in pp will increase diffusion
Apply to gases dissolved in liquids (water)
How to calculate pp
Pressure that a gas mixture exerts x fraction of the mixture represented by a particular gas
Respiratory Surfaces
Gas exchange is fast when the area for diffusion is large and the path for diffusion is short
Tend to be large and thin
Obtaining oxygen
Lungs
Adult frogs, Mammal
Gills
Fish, Tadpole, Squid, Crayfish
Skin
Earthworms
Trachea and Spiricoles
Insect
Animals must obtain oxygen because they need to do cellular respiration
Oxygen gets into the blood and carbon dioxide gets out by diffusion
Human Resoiratory System
Lungs
Infloding of the body surface that are typically subdivided into numerous pockets
Since the lungs aren't in direct contact with all the parts of the body, we use the circulatory system to transport gases between the lungs and the rest of the body
Trachea
portion of the respiratory tract that passes from the larynx to the bronchi; also called the windpipe
Bronchi
Two main air passages that branch off from the trachea, leading into each lung
Bronchioles
fine branch of the bronchi that transports air to alveoli
Alveoli
Gas exchange in mammals which are air sacs clustered at the tip of the tiniest bronchioles
Diaphragm
Sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the bottom wall of the thoracic cavity
Surfactant
Substance secreted by alveoli that decreases surface tension in the fluid that coats the alveoli
Epithelium lining
Covered by Cilis and thin film of mucus
Mucus traps, dust pollen, and other particulate contaminants
Beating cilia move the mucus upward to the pharynx where it can be sawllowed into the esophagus
42.3
All blood vessels contain a central lumen lined with a single layer of flatten epithelial cells (endothelium)
Smooth endothelial layer minimizes resistance to fluid flow
Artery
Has thick, strong, and elastic walls
Can accommodate blood pumped at high pressure by the heart bulging outward as the blood enters and recoiling as the heart relaxes between contractions
Blood pressure highest when the heart contracts during ventricular systole (Systolic Pressure)
Ventricular contraction causes a spike in blood pressure that stretches the walls of the arteries
When heart contracting happens blood enters the arteries faster than it can leave which causes the vessels to stretch
Diastole
Elastic walls that snap back
Lower substantial blood pressure when the ventricles are relaxed (Diastolic pressure)
Before enough blood has flowed into the arterioles to completely relieve pressure in the arteries the heart contracts again
Veins
Convey blood back to the heart at a lower pressure
Has a wall that is only a third as thick as one of a Artery
Contain valves that maintain unidirectional flow of blood despite low blood pressure in the vessels
Vasoconstriction: Smooth muscles in arteriole wall contract and the arterioles narrow
Increase blood pressure upstream in arteries
Vasodilation: Smooth muscle relaxes
Increase in diameter that cause blood pressure in arteries to fall
Blood Pressure
Is measured for an artery in the arm at the same height as the heart
Normal Reading is 120/70
120 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) at systole
70 mm Hg at diastole
A person's blood pressure can change throughout the day since you are constantly moving
High: Moving, Emotions
Low: Sitting
High Blood Pressure is 160/100
Hypertension: High Blood Pressure
Bad cux it can rapture blood vessels and if they rapture in your brain it can lead to a stroke
Capillaries
Role is to exchange food, oxygen, and nutrients
They are around the size of 1 blood cell
Major factors that can alter blood flow
Precapillary sphincters
Ring of smooth muscle that is at the entrance of the capillary beds that have both an opening and closing which regulate blood passage
Blockage of blood cells
Close
Exercise, Temperature Regulation, Injury Respones
Optimize blood flow to areas of the body that need it more
Open
Increase exchange
Increased blood flow is needed to meet the metabolic demands of tissues
Constriction and dilation of arterioles that supply capillary beds
42.6
Breathing
Process that ventilates lungs
The alternating inhalation and exhalation if air
Amphibians
Positive Pressure Breathing
Inflating the lungs with forced airflow
Inhalation
Muscle lowers the floor of amphibian's oral cavity drawing in air therough the nostril
Exhalation
Air is expelled by the elastic recoil of the lungs and compression of the muscular body wall
Frog gulp air down
Birds
Passes air over the gas exchange surface in only one direction
Air sacs on either side of the lungs act as bellows that direct air flow through the lungs
Parabronchi
Tiny channels
Sites of gas exchange
Mammal
Negative Pressure Breathing
Pulling air into the lungs
Flattening the diaphragm which increases volume which decreases pressure which pulls the lungs open
When a diaphragm is contracted it flattens
Tidal Volume
Volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath
Vital Capacity
Tidal volume during maximal inhalation and exhalation
Residual Volume
Air that remains after a forced exhalation
Control of Breathing in Humans
Neurons responsible for regulating breathing are the medulla oblongata and neural circuits in the medulla for a breathing control center
pH is used to determine breathing rates
Dissolved gasses affect the bloods pH since there would be more CO2 which would cause the pH to go down
carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system helps maintain a neutral blood pH
42.2 Coordinated cycles of heart contraction
Cardiac Output (CO)
Volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute
Rate of contraction, heart rate, and the stroke volume determine CO
Heart Rate (HR)
Number of beats per minute
Stroke Volume (SV)
Amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction
ECG/EKG
Record of the electrical impulses that travel through heart muscle during the cardiac cycle
Bundle Branches
Crucial for maintaining a coordinated and rhythmic heartbeat
Transmit electrical signals from AV node to the heart's apex so that the ventricles contract in a synchronized manner
Purkinje Fibers
Transmitting electrical impulses from the AV node to the ventricles so that the heart contracts in a coordinated manner
Has to do with the heart's electrical conduction
Maintaining the hearts rhythmic beat and efficient pumping of blood
Sinoatrial (SA) Node
Region in the right atrium of the heart that sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract
Pacemaker
Atrioventricular (AV) Node
Heart muscle tissue between left and right atria where electrical impulses are delayed for about 0.1 second before spreading to both ventricles and causing them to contract
Cardiac Cycle
A complete sequence is when the heart chamber contracts and it pumps blood; when relaxed it fills with blood
Systole
Stage when the heart chamber contracts and pumps blood
Diastole
Heart chamber is relaxed and fills with blood
42.7 Adaptations for gas exchange
Respiratory Pigments
Protein that transports oxygen in blood or hemolymph
Hemoglobin
Respiratory pigment of many invertebrate species and almost all species of vertebrates
Carry oxygen
Color of oxygenated blood is Bright red
Color of deoxygenated blood is Dark red
Bohr Shift
Hemoglobin letting oxygen go where you need it the most
Respiratory adaptations
Diving mammals reflex
When cold water hits the face first it causes the heart rate to immediately decrease and the blood flow to body extremities is reduced
Myoglobin
Muscle protein that stores oxygen
42.1 Circulatory system
Nutrients and O2 enter the cytoplasm by crossing the plasma membrane
CO2 which is a waste product exits the cell by the crossing the same membrane
Diffusion
Random thermal motion
Movement from area with high concentration to area with a low concentration
Net movement is only fast for ones that have to travel less
Unicellular
Exchange materials directly from their environment with diffusion through the plasma membrane
Multicellular
Direct exchange between every cell and their environment are not possible
Net movement is very slow for distances that are more than a few milimeters
adaptations that allow for efficient exchange
Simple body plan that places all the cells in direct contact with the environment
Includes cnidarians and flatworms
Lack of simple body structure makes the have to use the circulatory system
Circulatory system moves fluid between each cell immediate surroundings and the body tissue
Exchange with both the environment and body tissue can happen over short distances
Circulatory system: Exchange of gases with the environment and with body cells
Three basic functions: Circulatory fluid, Set of interconnection vessels, and a muscular pump
Heart powers circulation using metabolic energy in order to elevate the circulation fluids hydrostatic pressure which the pressure is exerted by a fluid in an enclosed space
By transporting fluid through the body, it connects the aqueous environment of the body cells to the organs that exchange gases, absorb nutrients, and dispose of waste
Gastrovascular Cavity
Distribution of substances throughout the body and digestion
Fluid bathes both the inside and outside tissues layers making the exchange of gasses and celluar waste easier
Cell lining is the only one with direct access to nutrients that are released by digestion
Nutrients only diffused a short distance in order to reach the outter tissue layers
Open Circulatory System
Circulatory fluid (Hemolymph) is also the interstitial fluid that bathes body cells
Contraction of the heart pumps the hemolymph through the circulatory vessels into interconnected sinuses (space surrounding the organs)
In sinuses the hemolymph and body cells exchange gases and other chemicals
Heart relaxation draws hemolymph back in through pores which have valves that close when the heart contracts
Body movements cause the sinuses to squeeze which helps circulate the hemolymph
Use less energy due to lower hydrostatic pressure
Closed Circulatory System
Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid
1 or more hearts pump blood into large vessels that branch into smaller smaller ones that infiltrate the tissues and organs
Chemical exchange occurs between blood and interstitial fluid as well as body cells and interstitial fluid
Blood pressure high enough to enable the effective delivery of O2 and nutrients in larger and more active animals
Organization of circulatory system
Cardiovascular system
Closed circulatory system with a heart and branching network of arteries, capillaries, and veins
Blood Vessels
Arterioles
vessel that conveys blood between an artery and a capillary bed
Venules
vessel that conveys blood between a capillary bed and a vein.
Arteries
Carry blood from the heart to organs throughout the body
Carry blood away from the heart toward the capillaries and veins return blood toward the heart form capillaries
Veins
Carry blood back to the heart
Capillaries
Microscopic vessels with very thin porous walls
Capillary beds
infiltrate tissues passing within a few cell diameters of every cell in the body
Muscular chambers
Atria: Chamber that recies blood entering the heart
Ventricles: Chamber responsible for pumping blood out of the heart
Types of Circulation
Single
Blood travels through the body and returns to its starting point in a single loop
Heart consists of two chambers: Atrium and Ventricle
Blood entering the heart collects on the atrium then transfers to the ventricle
Blood that leaves the heart passes through two capillary beds before returnning to the heart
When blood flows through the capillary bed the blood pressure drops
Blood flows under reduced pressure directly from the gas exchange organs to other organs
Double
Two circuts of blood flow
Pumps of two circuits are combined into a single organ the heart
Right side of the heart pumps oxygen poor blood to the capillary's beds of the gas exchange tissues where there is net movement of O2 inro the blood and CO2 out the blood
Vertebrates
Called Pulmonary Circuit cuz gas exchange happens in the lungs
Amaphibians
Called Pulmocutaneous Circuit cuz gas exchange takes place in the capillariesin both the kungs and skin
Provides a vigorous flow of blood to the brain, muscles, and other organs because the heart repressurizes the blood after it passed through the capillary's beds of either the lungs or the skin
Systemic Circuit
Begins on the left side of the heart pumping oxygen-enriched blood from the gas exchange tissues to capillaries beds in organs and tissues throughout the body
Exchange of O2 and CO2, nutrients and waste products, now oxygen-poor blood returns to the heart which completes the circuit
Chapter 43
43.2 Adaptive Immunity
Molecular recognition relies on a vast arsenal of receptors each of which recognizes a feature typically found only on a particular part of a particular molecule in a particular pathogen
Also known as the acquired immune response
Activated after the innate immune response and develops more slowly
Enhanced by previous exposure to the infecting pathogen
Relies on T and B cells which are types of white blood cells called Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes
Originate from steam cells in bone marrow
Some migrate from the bone marrow to the thymus
Matures into T cells
Remain and mature in the bone marrow are called B cells
Antigens recognition by B cells
Y shaped protein consisting of four polypeptide chains
Two Heavy chains
Contains a transmembrane region that anchors the receptor in the cells plasma membrane
Two Light chains
Each chain has a constant where amino acids sequences vary little among the receptors on different B cells
Have a variable region where the amino acid sequence varies extensively from one B cell to another
Antibody
Binding of a B cell antigen receptor to an antigen is an early step in B cell activation leading eventually to formation of cells that secrete a soluble form of the receotor
Also known as Immunoglobulin (Ig)
Same Y-shape as B cells antigen but lack membrane anchor
Direct defense against pathogens in body fluids
Antigen Recognition by T cells
Near the base of the T cell antigen receptor is a transmembrane region that anchors the molecule in the cells plasma membrane
Outer tip of the molecule the variable (V) regions of the alpha and b chanisn together form a single antigen-binding site
Consist of two different polypeptide chains an alpha chain and b chain linked by disulfide bridge
Bind only to fragments of antigens that are displayed on the surface of host cells
Host cells display antigen fragment on the cell surface called Major Histocompatibility Complex Molecule (MHC)
MHC is essential for antigen recognition by T cells
Antigen Presentation
Display of the antigen fragments in an exposed groove of the MHC protein
Advertises the fact that a host cell contains a foregin substance
Interaction of MHC molecule, an antigen fragment, and an antigen receptor triggers an adaptive immune response
Proliferation of B and T cells
Antigen is presented to a steady stream of lymphocytes in the lymph nodes until a match is made
Successful match between antigen receptor and epitope initiates events which activate the lymphocyte bearing the receptor
Once activated B and T cells undergo multiple cell divisions which leads to proliferation which are a population of cells that are identical to the og's
Some cells from this clone become Effector Cells which are mostly short-lived cells that take effect immediately against the antigen and any pathogens producing that antigen
Remaining cells in the clone become memory cells that are long-lived and can give rise to effector cells of the same antigen is encountered later
Clonal Selection
Process by which an antigen selectively binds to and activates only those lymphocytes bearing receptors specific for the antigen
43.3 How does the Adaptation system work
Helper T Cells
Activates humoral and cell-mediated immune responses
To do this two conditions must be met which are a foreign molecule must be present that can bind specifically to the antigen receptor of the helper T cell, and the antigen must be displayed on the surface of an antigen presenting cell
Infected cells can display foreign antigens on their surface
Distinguishes antigen-presenting cells form infected cells are their types of classes of MHC molecules
Most body cells have class 1 MHC molecules, but antigen-presenting cell have both
Class 2 molecules provide a molecular signature by which an antigen-presenting call is recognized
Accessory protein called CD4 on the helper T cell surface binds to the class 2 Mhc molecule helping keep the cells joined
As the two cells interact signals are exchanged in the form of cytokines
Extensive contact between the cell surface enables further information excahnge
B Cells and Antibodies
Activation of B cells involves both helper T cells and proteins on the surface of pathogens which are stimulated by both an antigen and cytokines
Humoral Immune response
Antibodies help eliminate antigens by facilitating phagocytosis and complement - mediated lysis
Cell Mediated Immune Response activate cytotoxic T cells which trigger destruction of infected cells
The protection provided by a second immune response provides the basis for immunization which is the process of generating a state of immunity by artificial means
Vaccines used today for immunization may be made from inactivated bacterial toxins, killed or weakened pathogens, or the mRNA or DNA encoding these proteins
Active immunity
Defense that arises when a pathogen infection or immunization prompts an immune response
Passive immunity
Short-term immunity conferred by the transfer of antibodies
Immune rejection
Cells form another person can be recognized as foreign and attackd by the immune defenses
MHC molecules are a primary cause of rejection
MHC proteins on cell surfaces are likely to differ between any two ppl which is why it can stimulate an immune response in the recipient of a transplant causing rejection
To minimize rejection of transplants surgeons, use donor tissue bearing MHC molecules that match those of the recipient as closely as possible
Recipients take medication that suppress immune responses however this leaves the recipents more susceptible to infections
43.1 Innate Immunity recognition and response
Immune system
Body's defense that enables an animal to avoid/limit many infections
First lines of defense help prevent pathogens from gaining entrance to the body
Secretions that trap and kill pathogens guard the body's entrances and exits while the linings of the digestive tract, airway, and other exchange surfaces provide additional barriers to infection
Immune Defenses
Innate Immunity
Set of immune defenses common to all animals that is active immediately upon exposure to a pathogen
Invertebrates
Set of barrier defense (Insect exoskeleton)
Composed largely of polysaccharide, chitin exoskeleton provides a physical barrier against most pathogens
Chitin lines insect intestine where it blocks infection by many pathogens
Lysozyme
Enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls acts as a chemical barrier against any pathogens ingested with food
Pathogen that does get in an insect's barrier defenses encounter internsl immune defenses
Hemocytes are the major immune cells
Some hemocytes are phagocytic cells
Phagocytosis: Ingest and break down microorganisms
Classes of hemocytes
Plasmodium: Type of defense molecule that helps entrap larger pathogens
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Antimicrobial Peptides
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Since animals don't produce double-stranded RNA its presence can trigger a specific defense against the invading virus
Vertebrates
Barrier Defenses
Block the entry of many pathogens include the mucous membranes and the skin
Mucous membranes line the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts produce mucus
Mucus: Viscous fluid that traps pathogens and other particles
Airway ciliated epithelial cells sweep mucus and any entrapped material upward helping prevent infection of the lungs
Saliva, tears, and mucous secretions bathe various exposed epithelia provide a washing action which inhibits colonization by Fungi and bacteria
Lysozyme in tears, saliva, and mucous secretion destroy the cell walls of susceptible bacteria
Pathogens that you might have ingested must contend with the acidic environment of the stomach which ends up killing most of them before they can enter the intestines
Secretion form oil and sweat glands give human skin a pH between 3-5 which is acidic enough to prevent growth of many bacteria
Cellular Innate Defenses
Toll-like receptor (TLR)
A membrane receptor on a phagocytic white blood cell that recognizes fragments of molecules common to a set of pathogens
Types of Phagocytic cells
Neutrophils
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Macrophages
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There are innate immunity cells dedicated to detecting, devouring, and destroying pathogens
Defenses
Dendritic cells
Stimulate adaptive immunity against pathogens that they engulf
Eosinophils
Immune system cell that secretes destructive enzymes and helps defend against multicellular pathogens.
Natural killer cells
Type of white blood cell that can kill tumor cells and virus-infected cells as part of innate immunity.
Mast cells
Immune system cell that secretes histamine; plays role in inflammatory response and allergies.
Adaptive Immunity
Set of molecular and cellular defense found only among vertebrates that is mediated by B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells)
Exhibits specificity, memory, and self-nonself recognition; also called acquired immunity
Local Inflammatory Response
Set of events triggered by signaling molecules released upon injury of infection
Begins when activated macrophages discharge cytokines (small peptides that act as signaling molecules)
Mast cells release the signaling molecule histamine at sites of damage
Triggers nearby blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable
Increase in local blood supply produces redness and increases skin temp
43.4 Disruptions in Immune system
Allergies
Are exaggerated respomses to cerain antigens called allergens
Mosst common alleries involve antibodies of the IgE class
Hay fever
When plasma cells secrete IgE antibodies specific for antigens on the surface of pollen grains
Some IgE antibodies attach by their base to mast cells in connective tissues
Pollen grains that enter the body later attach to the antigen-binding sites of the IgE antibodies
Attachments cross-link adjacent IgE molecules inducing the mast cell to release histamine and other inflammatory chemicals
Cause typical allergy symptoms
Drugs known as Antihistamines block receptors for histamine diminishing allergy symtoms
Autoimmune Diseases
Loss of self-tolerance
Immune system is active against particular molecules of the body
Self-reactive antibodies cause skin rashes, fever, arthritis, and kidney dysfunction
Targets of autoimmunity include the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas (in type 1 diabetes) and the myelin sheaths that encase many neurons (in multiple sclerosis)
Heredity, sex, and environment all influence susceptibility to autoimmune disorder
Affects females more often than males
AIDS is an acuaired immunodeficieny caused by HIV
Antigenic variation latency, and direct assault on the immune system allow some pathogens to thart immune responses
Cancer and Immunity
When the adaptive immunity is inactive the frequency of certain cancers increases dramatically
Vituses are involved in about 10% of all human cancers
Since the immune system can recognize viral proteins as foreign it can act as a defense against viruses that can cause cancer and agaisnt cancer cells that harbor viruses
Viruses that can cause cancer
Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus
Hepatitis B
Can trigger liver cancer