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Animal Physiology 2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - NK cells
        
        Secrete perforins, cytolytes, histamines, cytokines, activated by viruses, destroyers.
      - Antimicrobial proteins
        
        Interferon- makes cells resistant to viral reproduction, several kinds, antiviral drugs.
        
        CRP- binds to pathogens to mark it for destruction by macrophages.
        
        Complement- protein C1-C9 that link to antibodies, or factors B, D, and P that link to glycocalyx.
      - Fever
        
        Caused by pyrogens, stimulates high metabolism, damages pathogens.
      - Inflammation
        
        Response to infection causing dilation of blood vessels, redness, pain, swelling, release of leukocytosis-inducing factors, attracting neutrophils.
      - Phagocytes
        
        Neutrophils, eosinophyls, mast cells, kupffer cells, microglia
    - - Mucous Membranes
        
        Antibacterial proteins
        
        Lysozymes
        
        Cilia
        
        HCL
      - Skin
        
        Sebum
        
        Acid
        
        Keratin
  - - - T cells
        
        Cell mediated- T cells, when activated by antigen, stimulates macrophages to hunt and destroy pathogen, APCs(dendritic cells), present antigens to T and B cells to find the right match to start cloning process.
    - - B cells
        
        Antibody mediated- triggered by antigens complete, incomplete (Haptens), antigenic determinant, self antigen (MHC class I and II), B cells, when encountering antigen, clones itself, makes plasma proteins which produce antibodies, or memory B cells to remember pathogen.
- - - - Common in cnideria and platyhelmenthis.
      - Fluid bathes both inner and outer tissue layers, facilitating exchange of gases and waste.
    - - In closed, the circulatory fluid is called Blood.
        
        Common in Annalids, chordata, and mollusks.
        
        Able to circulate throughout the body.
      - In open, the circulatory fluid is called Hemolymph (Interstitial Fluid)
        
        Common in arthropods.
        
        Uses less energy and food nutrients is trapped in the body.
    - - Small molecules, like O2 and CO2, undergo diffusion.
  - - - One path, heart has two chambers, ectothermic; don't need much oxygen.
    - - Two circuits, In pulmonary circuit; oxygenates blood, In systemic circuit; pumps oxygenated blood to the body.
      - In amphibians, they have no septum.
      - Types of blood vessels
        
        Venules- small blood vessels that carry blood from capillaries to the veins.
        
        Veins- Large blood vessels that transfer blood back to the heart, thin walls, have valves to prevent back flow, carries blood at low pressure.
        
        Arterioles- small blood vessels that branches from the arteries carrying blood to capillaries.
        
        Capillaries- facilitates exchange of substances between blood and interstitial fluid.
        
        Arteries- blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart, thick, strong elastic walls, smooth muscles, high pressure of blood.
  - - - Leukocytes (white blood cells)
        
        Basophils, Lymphocytes, Eosinophils, Neutrophils, Monocytes.
        
        For defense and immunity.
      - Platelets
        
        For blood clotting.
      - Make up 45%
      - Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
        
        Transport of O2 & some CO2.
        
        Hemoglobin.
    - - Known as Plasma.
      - Water, Ions, Plasma proteins.
      - Make up 55%
    - - Heart Attack
        
        Also called Myocardial Infarction, is the damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries.
      - Stroke
        
        Death of nervous tissue in the brain due to a lack of oxygen. Results from rupture/blockage of arteries in the neck or head.
      - Atherosclerosis
        
        Hardening of the arteries by accumulation of fatty deposits. Key player is cholesterol.
      - Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) - Delivers cholesterol to cells for membrane production. Can be dangerous.
      - High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) - Scavenges excess cholesterol for return to the liver. Good for the body.
      - Hypertension is a contributor to heart attack and stroke. Also known as high blood pressure.
- - - - Humans use this method by flattening the diaphragm which increases volume, decreases pressure, pulls lungs open, and causes air to come in.
    - - Frogs use this method by forcing air down the lungs; gulping air and pushing it down the lungs.
  - - - By the time blood leaves the lungs its Po2 and Pco2 match the values for the air in alveoli.
      - In systemic capillaries, gradients of partial pressure favor the net diffusion of O2 out of the blood and CO2 into the blood.
      - The mixture formed in alveoli has a higher Po2 than blood flowing through the alveolar capillaries.
      - The blood is then returned to the heart and pumped to the lungs again.
      - During inhalation, fresh air mixes with air remaining in lungs.
      - In lungs, exchange occurs across the alveolar capillaries, resulting in exhaled air enriched in CO2 and partially depleted of O2.
    - - They circulate with the blood/hemolymph and are often contained within specialized cells.
      - Hemocyanin- a blue pigment, has copper as its oxygen-binding component. Common in arthropods and many molluscs.
      - For vertebrates and invertebrates, the respiratory pigment is Hemoglobin. Efficient at delivering oxygen to tissues actively consuming CO2.