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Semantics: the study of meaning in language., By: Jonathan Alvarado -…
Semantics: the study of meaning in language.
How the Mind Stores Meaning
Mental images: Visual ideas we imagine (but people may imagine different things).
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Usage-based definitions: Meaning is understood by how words are used in context.
:check:Good
The meaning of bird is learned by seeing how people use it in sentences like “The bird flew away.”
Dictionary definitions: Meanings explained using other words (but can be circular).
:red_cross:wrong
Reference of a Common Noun
Refers to a set or group of entities sharing common features.
“Dog” refers to all animals that are dogs.
Star from here
Form and Meaning
"Form" refers to the physical structure of a word or sentence (its spelling, sound, and grammar), while "meaning" is the concept or idea it represents.
“The dog sleeps on the sofa.”
Compositional Semantics
The study of how the meanings of words combine to create sentence meaning.
"Fast car" vs. "Fast algorithm": Both use the same structure, but "fast" modifies a physical object ("car") in the first phrase and a process ("algorithm") in the second
Sense and Reference
Sense: The idea or concept we have in our mind when we hear a word.
The sense of “video game console” is the idea of a vehicle used for transportation.
Reference: The real object or person that the word refers to.
When you say “My PS5” the reference is your specific vehicle.
Empty Set: When an expression has sense but no real object it refers to in the world.
“The new PS8” it makes sense, it does not exist.
Does not exist in real world
Multiple Senses, Same Reference: Two expressions may have different senses but refer to the same thing.
“The capital of France”
“The city where the Eiffel Tower is located.”
Compositional vs. Non-Compositional Meaning
Compositional meaning: The meaning is predictable from the meanings of the parts.
A red car: meaning comes from red + car.
Non-compositional meaning: The meaning cannot be predicted from the parts.
Hotdog: is not a dog that is hot
Propositions
The meaning of a declarative sentence, which can be true or false.
“Dogs are animals.” → Proposition = a truth that can be evaluated.
Reference of an Adjective
Refers to a set of things that have a certain property.
“Red” refers to all objects that are red.
Intersective, Subsective, and Non-Intersective Adjectives
Subsective adjectives: Depend on the noun’s meaning.
Old car: The car will be old depending on th comparison
Non-intersective adjectives: Do not require the noun to actually have the property.
Possible solution → might not really be a solution yet.
Intersective adjectives: Describe a quality that clearly overlaps with the noun.
Red apple → something both red and an apple.
Mutual Entailment
When two propositions entail each other — if one is true, the other is also true.
“John bought a car.” ↔ “A car was bought by John.”
Sense and Reference of a Verb Phrase & Noun Phrase
Noun Phrase: Its reference is the entity it refers to.
“The black phone” → refers to a specific phone.
Verb Phrase: Its reference is the set of events or actions described.
“Runs fast” → refers to all events of running fast.
Sense and Reference of a Sentence
Sense: The proposition or idea the sentence expresses.
Reference: Its truth value (true or false).
“The Earth is round.” Sense = the concept of Earth being round; Reference = true.
Entailments
When the truth of one sentence guarantees the truth of another.
“John killed the spider.” → entails “The spider is dead.”
Truth Conditions
The conditions under which a sentence would be true or false.
“The horse is on the mat” → true if, in the real world, the horse is actually on the mat.
Reference of a Proper Name
A proper name refers to a specific individual.
“El Salvador” → refers to a specific country.
Reference of an Intransitive Verb
Refers to a set of entities that perform the action without needing an object.
“Sleep” or "Run" refers to all individuals that are sleeping or runing.
Semantic Ambiguity
When a word, phrase, or sentence has more than one meaning.
Homonym
word that shares the same spelling or pronunciation with another word but has a different meaning.
Park (a public green space) and park (to stop a vehicle).
Polysemous
a single word that has multiple, related meanings.
Bright: (meaning "shining light") Bright (meaning "intelligent"). The conceptual link is the idea of illumination.
Hypernym – Hyponym
Hypernym: A general term that includes other specific words.
Hypernym: Video game console or Sports
Hyponym: A specific example of a more general term.
Hyponym: Xbox 360 or Soccer
We need a hypernym to use a hyponym
Synonym – Antonym
Synonyms: Words with similar meanings.
Example: Big / Large
Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings.
Example: Black / White
Types of antonyms
Complementary Antonyms
Definition: The opposite of one excludes the other.
True/False. No middle poins
Gradable Antonyms
Words that are opposites but can vary in degree
Hot / Cold — something can also be warm or cool.
By: Jonathan Alvarado
