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Geography Paper 1 Revision - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Constructive
        
        At a constructive plate boundary, two tectonic plates move away from each other due to convection currents in the mantle. This allows magma to rise and create new crust, which forms landforms such as mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys. This process is accompanied by frequent, but typically gentle, volcanic eruptions and shallow earthquakes, as seen along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
      - Destructive
        
        At a destructive boundary, tectonic plates move towards each other, resulting in the denser oceanic plate subducting (sinking) beneath a continental plate. This process creates deep ocean trenches and, as the subducting plate melts, magma rises to form explosive composite volcanoes and fold mountains. The friction and pressure between the plates also cause powerful, destructive earthquakes. A key example is the boundary between the Nazca and South American plates, which formed the Andes mountains.
      - Conservative
        
        At a conservative boundary, tectonic plates slide horizontally past each other, either in opposite directions or at different speeds. Friction causes the plates to stick, building up immense pressure. When this pressure is released in a sudden jolt, it causes powerful, shallow earthquakes, but no volcanoes are formed. A key example is the San Andreas Fault in California
      - Collision
        
        At a collision boundary, two continental plates push into each other. As both plates have a similar, low density, neither is subducted. Instead, the immense pressure forces the crust to buckle and fold upwards, forming large fold mountains like the Himalayas, a process that causes powerful earthquakes but no volcanic activity
      - Hotspots
        
        A hotspot is an area of volcanic activity located away from plate boundaries, caused by a plume of superheated magma rising from the Earth's mantle. As a tectonic plate moves over this stationary plume, a chain of volcanoes forms, with the oldest ones being the furthest from the hotspot. The Hawaiian Islands are a classic example of this process
      - Tectonic plates are large sections of the earths crust that float on top of the mantle and slowly move and shift on the earths surface. there are two types of plates which are continental plates (thicker, less dense plates) and oceanic plates (thinner, more dense plates) that sink below the continental plates because they are more dense
    - - Earthquakes
        
        Shallow vs Deep focus earthquakes
        
        A shallow focus Earthquake is any Earthquake ranging from 0-70km deep, whereas a deep focus Earthquake is recorded from any 70km - 700km deep.
        Shallow focus Earthquakes generally happen more frequently than deep focus earthquakes.
        Shallow focus Earthquakes are also generally more destructive at the surface as the shockwaves from the release of pressure has less distance to travel compared to deep focus earthquakes which have to travel much further letting the dissipate
        
        What is an Earthquake?
        
        An Earthquake is a sudden, violent shaking of the Earth's crust caused by the release of built up pressure from tectonic plates getting caught on each other
        
        Impacts
        
        The primary impacts of Earthquakes are buildings and infrastructure collapsing, deaths and injuries, and ground rupturing and breaking
        The secondary impacts of Earthquakes are: Tsunamis (if the Earthquake occurs under the ocean), Landslides (shaking can destabilise slopes, disease (from broken water pipes being contaminated), Economic disruption, Aftershocks (smaller Earthquakes that can still cause lots of damage to the already weakened infrastructure
      - Volcanoes
        
        Volcano Types
        
        Stratovolcano
        
        A stratovolcano (composite volcano) is a tall, and steep volcano formed from layers of thick, viscous lava and ash. The magma's stickiness causes pressure to build, resulting in explosive and dangerous eruptions
        
        Cinder Cone
        
        A cinder cone is a type of volcano, consisting of a steep, cone shaped hill of loose volcanic fragments called cinders. Its formed from short, explosive eruptions of gas-rich magma that quickly falls back down around a single volcanic vent
        
        Shield Volcano
        
        A shield volcano is a broad, dome-shaped volcano with gently sloping sides, built by thin, runny lava flows that travel long distances
        
        Lava Dome
        
        A lava dome is a circular, mound-shaped protrusion formed by the slow extrusion of highly viscous lava that piles up over and around a volcanic vent. Because the lava is so thick, it cannot flow very far.
        
        What is a Volcano?
        
        A volcano is an opening in the Earth's crust that allows hot, molten rock, ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber beneath the Earth's surface.
        
        Impacts
        
        The primary impacts of Volcanoes are: lava flows, pyroclastic flows (fast moving, hot clouds of gas, ash, and rock), ash fall, volcanic gases, large volcanic rocks and lava being shot out of the volcano (volcanic bombs) The secondary impacts of Volcanoes are: climate change, displacement, and homelessness, economic disruption, fertile soils, and famine
        
        How are Volcanos formed?
        
        Constructive plate boundaries
        
        Two tectonic plates move away from each other creating a gap which allows magma from the mantle to rise from the surface. as the magma erupts and cools it forms a volcano
        
        Hotspots
        
        Hotspots are areas of super heated magma which rises through the mantle, the magma melts through the crust and erupts, forming a chain of volcanic islands as the tectonic plate moves over it
        
        Destructive plate boundaries
        
        When oceanic plates collide with continental plates the oceanic plate sinks under which generates intense heat from the friction causing it to melt into magma. This magma then rises to the top due to it being less dense erupting through the weakened crust.
        
        When a volcano erupts it causes molten rocks and ash to be launched from the volcano which over time repeated eruptions cause slopes of cooled lava and ash to build up creating volcanic mountains
      - Tsunamis
        
        How do Tsunamis form
        
        Tsunamis are mainly caused by shifts in oceanic tectonic plates which cause large amounts of water to be shifted, they can also be caused from under water volcanoes erupting, and even meteors though it rearely happens
        
        What is a Tsunami
        
        A Tsunami is a large, powerful ocean waves caused by a large displacement of water
        
        Impacts
        
        The primary impacts of Tsunamis are: lots of coastal flooding, large amounts of sudden erosion, and destruction of infrastructure.
        The secondary impacts of Tsunamis are: death and displacement of animals, contamination of fresh water, economic disruption for those who rely on fishing in coastal areas.
    - - Atmospheric Circulation
        
        Global atmospheric circulation is the large scale movement of air that redistributes heat across the planet. It is caused by the sun's heating of the Earth's surface causing different pressure belts and wind patterns in certain areas more than others
        
        The Three-Cell Model - in each hemisphere the atmosphere is divided into three cells
        
        Ferrel Cell (30-60 degrees North and South)
        
        Warm are from the subtropics is pulled towards the poles and meets cold air from the polar cells around 60 degrees North and South. The warmer, less dense air rises above the colder air creating a lower-pressure zone causing much of the Uk's rain and climate
        
        Polar Cell (60-90 degrees North and South)
        
        At the poles, cold, dense air sinks creating a high pressure zone. This air flows along the surface towards lower latitudes before rising again at the polar front (around 60 degrees North and South) as it warms up
        
        Hadley Cells (0-30 degrees North and South)
        
        Intense sunlight at the equator heats the air causing it to rise, creating a low pressure belt with high rainfall, the air moves towards the poles and begins to sink as it cools down around 30 degrees North and South creating high pressure belts which leads to dry and clear conditions.
        
        Jet Stream
        
        The jet stream is a high altitude, fast moving lines of wind that circle the Earth from West to East. They are found at the boundaries where the Circulation Cells (Hadley, Ferrel, Polar) meet
        
        The Jet Stream moves weather systems across the globe and its position can heavily influence the weather in some places like the UK
        When the Jet Stream is North of the UK it brings warmer, drier, and calmer weather, whereas when the Jet Stream is South of the UK it brings cooler, wetter, and windier weather
      - Weather Hazards
        
        Tropical Storms
        
        These are also known as hurricanes. cyclones, or typhoons. They are extremely low pressure systems with powerful winds, heavy rain, and storm surges
        
        They normally form over warm tropical oceans with water temperatures of at least 27 degrees celsius and require the Coriolis effect to occur which is why they do not form at the equator
        
        As warm, moist air rises and condenses, it releases energy, fuelling the storm
        
        The primary effects of tropical storms are: structural damage to infrastructure from high winds and flooding, deaths, and injuries
        The secondary effects of tropical storms are: homelessness, food shortages, spread of disease (contaminated water)
        
        Droughts and Heatwaves
        
        Droughts periods of time with below average rainfall and dry conditions
        They are caused by changes in atmospheric circulation, like constant high-pressure systems staying in the area
        
        Heatwaves are long periods of time of hot weather with dry conditions
        They are caused by the same thing that causes droughts, constant high-pressure systems in the area
        
        Both Droughts and Heatwaves have similar impacts
        Primary impacts are: water shortages, reduced crop yield and livestock losses, wildfires, illnesses and death, and dehydration
        Secondary impacts are: Food and water insecurity, economic losses, migration, environmental damage, and flash floods after the heatwave/drought
    - - Reducing Tectonic Hazard Impacts (Volcanoes and Earthquakes)
        
        Monitoring
        
        Scientists monitor volcanoes constantly using several methods to help predict when it is going to erupts to give citizens a chance to evacuate
        
        Methods to help predict eruptions are
        
        Seisometer - records small earthquakes and shakes which often happens when magma rises in a volcano
        
        Tiltmeters - records the grounds tilt and deformation as the ground swells when magma builds up underneath
        
        Gas Emissions - instruments detect increase in gases such as sulfer dioxide as magma rises to the surface
        
        Thermal imaging - thermal cameras detect changes in temperature as the volcano heats up
        
        Seismographs and Ocean Buoys - detect seismic activity, shifts in the ocean and changes in sea level
        
        Protection
        
        Building Design
        
        Reinforced steel frames keep the building stronger and more resistant to shockwaves deforming the building
        
        Rubber shock absorbers in the foundations of buildings help absorb the shockwaves
        
        Reinforced windows prevent them from shattering
        
        Diverting Lava Flows - channels or barriers can be used to divert lava away from populated areas and into safer less populated areas
        
        Planning
        
        Hazard Maps - creating maps of high risk areas to help citizens escape from lava flows, where to stay away from, and direct them to safer areas
        
        Land Use Zones - building important facilities away from danger zones like hospitals, major transport roads or railways
        
        Drills and Education - practising drills and educating the public on where to go to avoid danger and what to do in certain situations
        
        Emergency kits to treat wounds and provide them with supplies like food and water
      - Reducing Weather Hazard Impacts
        
        Protection
        
        Building Reinforcements
        
        Securing doors and roofs with straps to help keep them shut
        
        Window shutters help protect against flying debri
        
        Constructing buildings on stilts to help protect against floods
        
        Storing water in case of droughts allow for a 'normal' use of water
        
        Using water efficiently to not waste water during droughts
        
        Coastal Defences - sea walls and flood barriers can be built to help protect against storm surges and waves created by the wind
        
        Planning
        
        Disaster preparation - public awareness and education helps to prepare different regions for their more common weather hazards (tropical storms, or heatwaves/droughts)
        
        Emergency response - training emergency services and planning evacuation routes for tropical storms and providing people who desperately need water with their needed supplies
        
        Long-term recovery - following tropical storms and droughts/heatwaves communities and councils will learn from this and prepare newer stronger buildings or larger water supplies to help them
        
        Prediction
        
        Monitoring
        
        Satellite tracking - satellites track the movement, size, and temperature of storms and other weather patterns so people can prepare for droughts by storing water
        
        Computer models - predict the likely paths of storms allowing predicted areas to evacuate and can show what areas are going to be more extremely affected by droughts or heatwaves
        
        Early Warning System - allows citizens to prepare in advance in case of a storm (Hurricane Watch - a hurricane is possible within 48 hours, Hurricane Warning - a hurricane is expected within 36 hours
  - - - The Earths average global temperature has risen over 1 degree since the industrialisation, with the last decade being the warmest on record
      - Melting ice caps and glaciers are a clear indication of climate change as in recent years they have been shrinking at an alarming rate. Sea ice has also significantly decreased and permafrost is thawing in tundra regions
      - Sea Levels Rising due to melting Ice (Sea Ice, Glaciers, Icebergs) and have risen about 20 cm globally since the 1900s
      - Extreme Weather Events happening more frequently from globally warmer temperatures
    - - Natural Causes
        
        Orbital Changes - slight shifts in the Earth's orbit and tilt affect how much sunlight the earth receives (increasing or decreasing temperatures)
        
        Volcanic Activity - large volcanic eruptions cause huge amounts of ash and sulphur dioxide, temporarily blocking the sun and cooling the planet. however lots of eruptions also release huge amounts of greenhouse gases which heats up the earth
      - Human Causes
        
        Burning Fossil Fuels - combustion of coal, oil, and gas releases large amounts of greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide
        
        Deforestation - clearing out forests means that there are less trees that will absorb carbon dioxide, and when trees decompose or are burned they release all the stored carbon dioxide
        
        Agriculture - certain types of farming like livestock farming (methane from cattle) and the use of certain fertilisers can release greenhouse gases
    - - Environmental
        
        Habitat Loss:
        melting ice threatens polar species
        kills coral reefs affecting many species of fish and coral
        effects many other ecosystems all around the world
        
        Ecosystem Disruption:
        ocean acidification causes coral bleaching and marine biodiversity loss
        polar habitats shrinking
        
        Water Scarcity:
        increased droughts due to warmer temperatures leads to more frequent water shortages for both humans and agriculture
        
        Coastal Flooding:
        forces species away from their natural habitat and may end up in them dying from different climates if they have to move far
      - Economic and Social
        
        Food:
        more changes in rainfall and temperature can reduce crop yields leading to food shortages and increased prices
        
        Coastal Flooding:
        rising sea levels increase the risk of flooding in low-lying areas and islands, forcing people to have to relocate
        
        Health Impacts:
        heatwaves can cause heat-related illnesses and deaths in less developed countries
    - - Mitigation
        
        Moving from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
        
        Carbon Capture and Storage is a process where machines capture carbon dioxide emissions and store it underground
        
        Planting trees will mean that they absorb carbon dioxide reducing the amount of greenhouse gases in the air
      - Adaptation
        
        Managing coastal change with building sea walls, to help against rising tides, and artificial reefs to help aquatic species
        
        Changing agricultural practices by genetically modifying crops to better suit changing conditions
        
        Managing extreme weather by developing more advanced systems that can more accurately predict weather systems
  - - - Human Processes
        
        Agriculture - clearing land, draining ditches, and farming practices leading to soil erosion
        
        Urbanisation - building settlements, roads, and other infrastructure
        
        Management Strategies - hard and soft engineering techniques used to control natural processes, such as building sea walls or flood embankments which can help against natural processes
      - Natural Processes
        
        Weathering
        
        Mechanical Weathering - breakdown of rock through physical force, such as freeze-thaw (water enters cracks in rocks, freezes when temperatures drop and expands widening the crack until the rock splits)
        
        Chemical Weathering - breakdown of rock through chemical reactions (acidic rainwater reacting with limestone/chalk)
        
        Biological Weathering - breakdown of rock by living organisms (plant roots growing into cracks or animals burrowing)
        
        Mass Movement
        
        Rockfalls - fragments of rock falling from steep ledges or hills
        
        Slumping - soil and weak rocks slide down a slope with a rotational slip surface and is common in coastal areas or areas with lots of rain
        
        Landslides - a large section of rock or soil slides down a slope along a flat surface
        
        Erosion
        
        Hydraulic Action - the force of moving water slamming into cracks in rocks forcing and compressing air into them widening the cracks
        
        Abrasion - the 'sandpaper' effect of sediment and rocks being scraped against the bed and banks of a river or coastline
        
        Attrition - rock particles and pebbles hitting each other during transport, becoming smaller and more rounded
        
        Solution - dissolving of soluble rocks like limestone by slightly acidic water
        
        Transportation
        
        Traction - rolling of large rocks/pebbles along the river or sea bed
        
        Saltation - small pebbles bouncing along the bed of a river
        
        Suspension - fine material carried within the water and transported down the river
        
        Solution - dissolved rocks are carried down river by the current
        
        Longshore Drift - the zig-zag movement of sediment along a coastline
        
        Deposition
        
        The dropping of transported sediment when the current loses its energy allowing it to collect on a river or sea bed
    - - Factors Shaping the Landscape
        
        Geology
        
        Upland Areas - mostly made of older, harder, and more resistant igneous and metamorphic rocks
        
        Lowland Areas - mostly made of younger, softer sedimentary rocks which are less resistant to erosion
        
        Glaciation
        
        The UK was once covered in ice sheets mostly the North and West. These ice sheets eroded the landscape so vigorously creating features like U-Shaped Valleys, Corries, and Ribbon Lakes
        
        Rivers and Coasts
        
        Rivers flow from upland areas like mountains down to the sea or ocean. In the rivers upper course the river is more of a small stream in V shaped valleys and wider and deeper in the lower course of the river
        
        Coastal processes like erosion and deposition constantly change the shape of a coastline, creating new features like cliffs, headlands, bays, and spits.
        
        Weathering and Mass Movement
        
        These processes break down and move rock material, shaping slopes, valleys, cliffs, and mountains
        
        Human Activity
        
        Very few landscapes in the UK are fully natural as human activities like agriculture, forestry, and urban development have significantly changed the characteristics of the land over many years
      - Upland VS Lowland in the UK
        
        Location - Upland areas are in the North and West, Lowland areas are in the South East
        
        Geology - upland areas have hard resistant igneous and metamorphic rocks. lowland areas have softer less resistant sedimentary rocks
        
        Relief/Height - upland areas have a high relief with mountainous and rugged terrain. lowland areas have a low relief with flat or gently rolling hills
        
        Climate - upland areas have cooler temperature, higher precipitation levels, and windier climate. lowland areas have warmer temperatures, lower precipitation levels, and less windy climate
        
        Typical Landforms - upland areas have V and U shaped valleys, corries, steep slopes, and lots of exposed rocks. lowland areas have wide river valleys, flat plains, and gentle slopes
        
        Human Use - upland areas are used for pastoral farming, forestry, tourism, and some renewable energy generators. lowland areas are used for arable farming, large settlements, and urban growth
    - - A landscape is the visible features of an area, both natural and human made elements
      - Core Concepts
        
        A landscape is the visible features of an area, both natural and human made elements
        
        How rock types (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic) and past tectonic activity influence the shape and height of the area
        
        distinguishing between characteristics, locations, and typical human activities in upland regions like northern and western UK areas and lowland regions like southern and eastern UK areas
      - Physical Processes and Landforms
        
        Weathering - the breakdown of rocks by mechanical, chemical, and biological processes
        
        Erosion, Transportation, and Deposition - the wearing away, movement, and dropping of material by natural forces like water, ice, and wind
        
        Mass movement - the downhill movement of material due to gravity, such as sliding and slumping
      - Human Interaction and Management
        
        Human Activity - how human actions (agriculture, forestry, urbanisation, quarrying) further shape and change landscapes
        
        Management Strategies - evaluating different approaches used to manage and help control physical processes like coastal erosion and rivers flooding
        
        Case Studies - application of knowledge to specific examples of UK landscapes (Holderness Coast, The River Tees, The Lake District)
    - - Agriculture - Humans use the land differently depending on the area. Upland areas mainly are used for sheep farming (pastoral), resulting in open moorlands. Lowland areas are used for growing crops, resulting in large, open fields.
      - Forestry and Woodland Management - Large areas, especially in the uplands, are used to sell commercial conifer trees. These look very different from the natural, protected woodlands found in the lowlands.
      - Urban Development and Transport - Towns and cities have grown rapidly, particularly on the plains of the lowlands, replacing natural land with buildings, roads, and railways,
      - Industry and Resource Extraction - Mining and quarrying for materials like coal, slate, and limestone have dug into and physically changed the landscape, creating large quarries and waste heaps.
      - Land Management - People actively protect the landscape through conservation areas, helping to protect the wildlife and its natural habitats.
      - Tourism and Recreation - Popular areas like National Parks attract many tourists. This helps local businesses but also causes problems like worn-out footpaths, and lots of litter, requiring careful management to protect the environment and wildlife.
  - - - National Parks and Reserves - Designating areas as National Parks, nature reserves protects habitats and the species within them from harmful development and overuse
      - Species Protection Laws: Laws are in place to prevent the hunting, harming, or trading of endangered species
    - - Sustainable Farming: Using farming methods that minimise environmental harm, such as less use of pesticides/fertilisers, reduced tillage and crop rotation, helps maintain soil nutrients
      - Sustainable Forestry - Managing forests so that trees are replanted as they are cut down, it ensures that the forest ecosystem is not
      - Sustainable Fishing - Setting fishing quotas, using selective fishing gear, and creating Marine Protected Areas prevents overfishing and allows fish numbers to recover.
    - - Community Involvement - Involving local communities in decision-making and management ensures that their needs are met while the ecosystem is protected
      - Education and Awareness - Educating the public about the value of ecosystems and the impacts of human actions encourages more sustainable behaviours
      - Ecotourism - Encouraging tourism that is low-impact and educates visitors about conservation helps fund protection efforts while providing income for local communities
    - - Sustainable Resource Use - humans use resources in a way that allows them to recover. e.g. selective logging in forests cutting fully grown trees and allowing younger ones to grow and sustainable fishing quotas prevent over fishing.
      - Education and Awareness - Education campaigns and conservation groups raise public awareness about the effect of harmful activities like deforestation and pollution
      - Protection and Preservation - limiting human impact through legal measures. This involves creating National Parks and Nature Reserves to protect habitats and the species within them.
      - Habitat Restoration and Replanting - Reforestation is where you replant trees in deforested areas to restore habitats to species
    - - Ecosystem
        
        An Ecosystem is a natural system where living organisms (biotic factors - Plants/Animals) interact with each other and the non-living elements in their surroundings
        
        Key Components
        
        Biotic Factors - Living organisms like plants and animals
        
        Abiotic Factors - Non-living components
        
        Interdependence - All parts of an ecosystem are linked, a change in one component will have an effect to other components
        
        Examples
        
        Woodlands
        
        Ponds
        
        Coral Reef
      - Biome
        
        A biome is a large geographic area defined by its specific climate, which determines the types of plants and animals that live there
        
        Biomes are defined by the vegetation, climate, and conditions (temperature and rainfall)
        
        Key Characteristics
        
        The amount of rainfall and average temperatures are the main factors determining which biome is which
        
        Biomes can span across continents and share similar characteristics to the same biomes globally
        
        Common Global Biomes
        
        Tropical Rainforests - Hot, High Precipitation, Humid, High Biodiversity, Near the Equator
        
        Deserts - Very Hot Days, Very Cool Nights, Very Dry, Little Vegetation, 30 degrees North/South of Equator
        
        Grasslands - Moderate Rainfall, Dominated by Grasses, High Biodiversity, Found in Tropical and Temperate Zones
        
        Temperate Forests - Moderate Temperatures and Rainfall, Clear Seasons, Lots of Deciduous Trees
        
        Tundra Very Cold, Low Precipitation, Permafrost, Treeless, High latitudes near the poles
        
        Boreal Forests - Cold, Coniferous Forests, Found at High Latitudes