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Consonant sounds are produced when the airflow encounters an [obstruction]…
Consonant sounds are produced when the airflow encounters an [obstruction] in the mouth or nasal cavities, which is why their articulation involves a certain amount of noise.
The degree of noise
Sonorants (or sonorous consonants) are produced with the tone prevailing over the noise, as the air passes through a relatively wide and open passage
[m], [n], [ŋ], [l], [r], [j], [w]
The manner of articulation
Occlusive consonants are produced when the airflow is completely blocked in the mouth for a short time before being released.
These include the sounds [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].
Constrictive consonants are produced when the airflow encounters an incomplete obstruction in the vocal tract, creating a narrow passage for the air to pass through.
These include the sounds [f], [v], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [θ], [ð], [h].
Occlusive-constrictive consonants, or affricates, are noise consonants produced with a complete blockage of the airflow that is then released gradually, allowing the air to escape with friction.
These include the sounds [ʧ] and [dʒ].
Rolled consonants are produced with repeated brief obstructions as the tip of the tongue rapidly taps against the alveolar ridge, vibrating in the airstream.
These correspond to the Russian sounds [р] and [р’].
The place of articulation
Labial consonants are made by the lips: [p], [b], [m] , [w], [f], [v].
Bilabial consonants are produced when both lips come together and actively shape the airflow.
These include the sounds [p], [b], [m], [w].
Labio-dental consonants are produced by bringing the lower lip into contact with the upper teeth.
These include the sounds [f] and [v].
Lingual place of articulation – consonants produced with the tongue.
Forelingual – tip or blade of the tongue: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r], [ʃ], [ʒ], [tʃ], [dʒ].
Position of the tip of the tongue.
Apical – the tip of the tongue is active during articulation: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n].
Dorsal – the blade of the tongue is active, tip is lowered or passive: [ʃ], [ʒ], [tʃ], [dʒ].
Cacuminal – the tip of the tongue is curled back toward the back of the alveolar ridge: [r].
Place of obstruction (where the tongue blocks or constricts airflow).
Interdental – the tip of the tongue is placed between the teeth: [θ], [ð].
Dental – the blade of the tongue touches the upper teeth: [t̪], [d̪], [l̪].
Alveolar – the tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge (just behind upper teeth): [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l].
Post-alveolar – the tip or blade of the tongue is near the back of the alveolar ridge: [r].
Palato-alveolar – the tip or blade is near the alveolar ridge and the front of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate: [tʃ], [dʒ], [ʃ], [ʒ].
Mediolingual – front part of the tongue: [j].
Backlingual (Velar) – back of the tongue: [k], [g], [ŋ].
The glottal consonant [h] is produced in the glottis, where the airflow passes through the open vocal cords without significant obstruction elsewhere in the vocal tract.
Noise consonants – consonants produced with friction or complete blockage, creating noise.
Examples: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [tʃ], [dʒ], [h]
The degree of force of articulation
Strong noise consonants (or fortis) are produced with greater muscular tension and a stronger breath force: [p], [t], [k], [f], [s], [ʃ], [θ], [h], [ʧ]
Weak noise consonants (or lenis) are produced with relatively less muscular tension and a weaker breath effort: [b], [d], [g], [v], [z], [ʒ], [ð], [dʒ]
The work of the vocal cords
Voiceless sounds are produced when the vocal cords are apart and do not vibrate, so only noise is heard: [p], [t], [k], [f], [s], [ʃ], [θ], [h], [ʧ].
Voiced sounds are produced when the vocal cords are brought close together and vibrate, so we hear the sound of the voice: [b], [d], [g], [v], [z], [ʒ], [ð], [dʒ]