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Physiology part 2, Capillaries, hemocytes: major immune cells, three basic…

- - - - ph balance buffers
      - dissolved ions and proteins
      - nutrients, metabolic wastes, respiratory gases, and hormones
    - - Erythrocytes: red blood cells
        
        transport oxygen
      - Leukocytes: white blood cells
        
        defense
      - Platelets
        
        cytoplasmic fragments of specialized bone marrow cells
        
        clots blood
        
        clotting: positive feedback loop
        
        dangerous if become thrombus
    - - reproduce indefinitely
      - one daughter cell that remains a stem cell and another that adopts a specialized function
      - Myeloid
        
        immune cells, red blood cells (erythrocytes), and platelets.
      - Lymphoid
        
        B&T cells
      - replace the worn-out cellular elements of blood
    - - Atherosclerosis
        
        damage or infection can roughen the lining ➡ hardening of the arteries by accumulation of fatty deposits
        
        high ratio of LDL to HDL are at substantially increased risk for atherosclerosis
      - heart attack
        
        damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries
      - stroke
        
        death of nervous tissue in the brain due to a lack of oxygen
      - risks and treatment
        
        low-density lipoprotein (LDL)—delivers cholesterol to cells for membrane production
        
        high-density lipoprotein (HDL)—scavenges excess cholesterol for return to the liver
        
        HDL/LDL ratio
        
        high
        
        low
  - - - pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases
    - - air
        
        easier movement
      - water
        
        requires more energy to carry out gas exchange
    - - always moist
      - exchange via diffusion
    - - ventilation
    - - tracheal system
        
        network of air tubes that branch throughout the body
      - largest tubes open to the outside
    - - Mammals
        
        larynx
        
        trachea
        
        vocal folds
        
        bronchi
        
        aveoli
        
        2 more items...
        
        bronchioles
        
        cilia and thin film of mucus
      - localized respiratory organs
  - - - blood speeds up as it enters the venules and veins
    - - Changes
        
        systolic pressure: blood pressure is highest when the heart contracts during ventricular systole
        
        diastolic pressure: the elastic walls of the arteries snap back. lower blood pressure when the ventricles are relaxed
      - Regulation
        
        vasoconstriction:
        
        smooth muscles in arteriole walls contract, the arterioles narrow
        
        increases blood pressure upstream in the arteries
        
        vasodialation
        
        smooth muscles relax
        
        blood pressure in the arteries fall
      - affected by gravity
      - sphygomameter
    - - returns loss fluid (lymph) and proteins from capillaries by draining into a pair of large veins of the cardiovascular system at the base of the neck
      - Lymph nodes filter lymph
  - - - one direction (hate their music)
      - parabronchi
      - inhale: outside air :arrow_right: posterior air sacs
        
        exhale: post air sacs :arrow_right: lungs
        
        inhale: lungs :arrow_right: anterior air sacs
        
        exhale: anterior air sacs :arrow_right: outside body
    - - Positive pressure breathing
        
        inflating the lungs with forced airflow
        
        air is expelled by the elastic recoil of the lungs and by compression of the muscular body wall
    - - negative pressure breathing
        
        pull air into lungs
        
        tidal volume
        
        volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath
        
        vital capacity
        
        tidal volume during maximal inhalation and exhalation
        
        residual volume
        
        air that remains after a forced exhalation
    - - breathing control centers
        
        Neural circuits in the medulla
      - involuntary
      - concentration of carbonic acid lowers pH
        
        homeostatic control
  - - - left/right ventricle
        
        thicker walls and contract much more forcefully
        
        left ventricle pumps blood throughout the body
        
        right ventricle generates less force as it pumps blood, same volume
      - left/right atrium
    - - :arrow_lower_right:
        
        atrial systole/ventricular diastole (0.1 sec)
        
        :arrow_left:
        
        ventricular systole/atrial diastole (0.3 sec)
      - :arrow_upper_right:
    - - SA node
        
        acts as a pacemaker cause both atria to contract in unison
      - AV node
        
        delayed signal allows the atria to empty completely before the ventricles contract. signals cause the ventricles to contract
  - - - fresh air mixes with air remaining in the lungs
        
        results in
        
        alveoli has a higher oxygen than the blood flowing through the alveolar capillaries
        
        diffusion
        
        blood leaving lungs match the oxygen and carbon dioxide in the aveoli
        
        returns to the heart
        
        1 more item...
    - - oxygen bound to proteins
      - carbon dioxide transport
        
        diffuses from plasma into red blood cells and reacts with water with help from an enzyme
        
        binds to
      - increase the amount of oxygen carried
      - ex: hemocyanin
        
        copper component for oxygen binding
        
        found in arthropods and many molluscs
      - ex: hemoglobin
        
        almost all species of vertebrates
        
        consists of a polypeptide and a heme group, a cofactor that has an iron atom at its center
      - ex: myoglobin
    - - high concentrations of
      - in muscles
      - swim with little muscular effort and glide passively for prolonged periods
  - - - branching distribution pouch
      - present in simple organisms: jellies, planaria, and hydra
    - - contain hemolymph, interstitial fluid
        
        arthropods and some mollusks
      - pores
    - - contain blood
        
        Chemical exchange occurs between the blood and the interstitial fluid, as well as between the interstitial fluid and body cells
      - vessels
    - - double: 2 circuits of bloodflow
        
        amphibians
        
        pulmocutaneous
        
        2 chamber
        
        mammals
        
        pulmonary
        
        4 chamber
      - single: one circuit of bloodflow
        
        heart: two chambers: an atrium and a ventricle
        
        sharks, bony fish
      - heart
        
        :arrow_up:
        
        arteries
        
        :arrow_upper_left:
        
        organs
        
        :arrow_left:
        
        1 more item...
- - - - binds through an antigen receptor
      - T cells bind only to fragments of antigens that are displayed
        
        MHC
        
        antigen presentation
      - diversity
        
        rearrangement
        
        undergo transformations
      - undergo cloning
        
        effector cells
        
        B cell: plasma cells secrete antibodies
        
        t cells: helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells
        
        memory cells
        
        clonal selection
        
        antigen selects how B or T cells will divide to produce a population cells specific for a particular epitope.
    - - secreted protein
      - immunoglobulin
    - - antigen receptors are tested for self-reactivity as lymphocytes mature
        
        "bad" ones are destroyed via apoptosis
      - body normally lacks mature lymphocytes that can react against its own components
    - - primary immune response
      - secondary immune response
        
        faster if pathogen is encountered again
        
        relies on stockpile of B&T memory cells
  - - - antigen presenting cell engulfs pathogen
    - - antibody function
        
        ex: neutraliztion
        
        antibodies bind to virus surface proteins rendering it nonfunctional
        
        interfere with pathogens
        
        ex: opsonization
        
        promote phagocytosis by presenting recognizable structure
      - helper T cells and proteins of pathogens start process
      - has specificity to antigens
      - robust humoral response
        
        protects blood and lymph
    - - cell mediated response
        
        infected host cells are destroyed
      - release toxic proteins to kill cell and immature viruses
    - - include both secondary and primary immune response
    - - vaccines
        
        boosters promote secondary immune reponse
    - - blood groups
        
        blood transfusions
  - - - chitin lines intestinal walls
    - - barrier defenses
        
        skin, mucous
        
        lysozomes in tears, saliva, and mucous secretions
        
        stomach acid
      - cellular
        
        toll like receptor
        
        phagocytes
        
        neutrophils
        
        macrophages
        
        others:
        
        Dendritic cells, Eosinophils, and Natural killer cells, Mast cells
      - inflammatory response
        
        systemic and chronic
        
        throughout the body caused by extreme damage or infection
        
        local swelling: often minor
      - antimicrobial peptides and proteins
        
        Interferons: proteins that interfere with viral infection
        
        complement system: 30 proteins in plasma
    - - outer capsule of some bacteria interferes with recognition and phagocytosis
        
        ex: Streptococcus pneumoniae
        
        causes meningitis and pneumonia
      - resist breakdown after being engulfed by a host cell
        
        ex: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
  - - - immunity reacts due to environment
    - - immune system attacks the body
      - no sense of self
    - - inborn
        
        genetic
      - acquired
        
        developed
    - - pathogen alters its appearance
        
        ex: trypanosomiasis
        
        periodically switches at random between 1k proteins found on its surface