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Transport
Ch.42 Circulation and Gas Exchange
How does the circulatory system link with surface of cells?
Diffusion: Passive movement of molecules from high to low concentration driven by random motion of particles
Heart: Muscular pump that elevates hydrostatic pressure( the pressure exerted by fluid) of circulatory fluid
Open Circulatory System
Hemolymph: Body fluid that bathes tissues
Arthropods and Mollusks
Closed Circulatory System
Blood is confined to blood vessels
Echinodermata, Chordata, Annelida
Cardiovascular System: Describes the heart and blood vessels in vertebrates
Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood toward the heart
Capillaries: Exchange of nutrients and gases within tissues
Capillary Beds: Groups of capillaries within tissues
Venules: blood vessel that is blood between vein and capillary bed
Atria: Top 2 chambers of the heart
Ventricles: Bottom 2 chambers of the heart
Single Circulation
Circulatory system containing a single pump and circuit in which blood passes from sites of gas exchanges to rest of body before returning to the heart
Double Circulation
A circulatory system consisting of separate pulmonary and systemic circuits in which blood passes through heart after completing every circuit.
How does heart contraction cause double circulation in mammals?
Cardiac Cycle: One complete cycle of pumping and filling of the heart
Systole: Contraction phase of each chamber
Diastole: Relaxation phase of each chamber
Cardiac output: The volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute.
Heart rate: The frequency of heart contraction
Heart Murmur: Abnormal heart sounds
Stroke Volume: The amount of a blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction
AV Valve: Heart valve located between each atrium and ventricle that prevents a back flow of blood when the ventricle contracts
Semilunar Valve: Valve located at each exit of the heart where the aorta leaves the left ventricle and the pulmonary artery leaves the right ventricle.
Heart's Electrical Conduction
SA node: Region in the right atrium of the heart and sets sinus rhythm ,the peacemakers
EKG: Record that shows electrical impulses measuring electrical activity in the heart
AV node: A region of the heart muscle tissue between the left and right atria where electrical impulses are delayed before spreading to both ventricles and causing them to contract.
How does blood pressure/flow affect the structure of blood vessels?
Endothelium: Single layer of flattened epithelial cells
Blood pressure
Systolic blood pressure: Blood pressure in the arteries of the contraction of the ventricles
Pulse;The rhythmic bulging of the artery walls within each heartbeat
Diastolic blood pressure: Blood pressure in the arteries when the ventricles are relaxed
Vasoconstriction: A decrease in the diameter of blood vessels caused by contraction of smooth muscles
Vasodilation: Increased in diameter of blood vessels by relaxation of smooth muscles
Lymphatic System: A system of vessels and nodes that returns fluids, proteins, and cells to blood
Lymph Nodes: Organ located along a lymph vessel. Lymph nodes filter lymph and contain cells that attack viruses and bacteria.
How does blood provide transport, defense, and exchange?
Plasma: The liquid matrix of blood in which the blood cells are suspended
Low Density Lipoprotein: That delivers cholesterol to cell for membrane production. Bad Protein
High Density Lipoprotein: Scavenges excess cholesterol for return to the liver
Erythrocytes: RBC that transports oxygen through hemoglobin
Erythropoietin: A hormone that stimulates the production of erythrocytes, which is secreted by kidney when body tissues don't receive oxygen.
Leukocytes: WBC that fights off infections
Platelets: Blood clotting
Thrombus: A fibrin containing clot
Diseases
Artherosclerosis: Hardening of arteries
Heart Attack (MI): The damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue that results from blockage of one or more coronary arteries
Stroke: Death of nervous tissue due to lack of oxygen.
Why does gas exchange only occur through specialized respiratory surfaces?
Gas exchange: Uptake of oxygen and discharge of carbon dioxide
Partial pressure: Pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases
Ventilation: The flow of air or water over a respiratory surface
Tracheal System: In insects, a system of branched air-filled tubes that extends throughout the body and carries oxygen directly to cells
Larynx: Voice box structure that contains vocal cords.
Trachea: Windpipe
Alveoli: Air sacs cluster at the tips of the bronchioles
Surfactant: Secreted by alveoli that decreases surface tension in the fluid that coats the alveoli.
How does breathing ventilate the lungs?
Breathing: Ventilation of lungs through alternating inhalation and exhalation
Positive pressure breathing: A breathing system in which air is forced in the lungs
Negative pressure breathing: A breathing system in which air is pulled in the lungs
Tidal Volume: The volume of air a mammal inhales and exhales in each breath
Vital Capacity: The maximum volume of air that a mammal can inhale and exhale with each breath
Residual Volume: The amount of air that remains in the lungs after forceful exhalation
How do adaptations of gas exchange include pigments that transport gases?
Respiratory Pigments: A protein that transports oxygen in blood or hemolymph
Bohr Shift: A lowering of the affinity of the hemoglobin for oxygen caused by the drop in pH. It facilitates the release of oxygen from hemoglobin in the vicinity of active tissues
Myoglobulin: An oxygen storing pigmented protein in muscle cells
Ch.43 Immune System
How come recognition and rely on traits common to pathogens in innate immunity?
Immune system: organism's defense against pathogens
Innate Immunity: Natural Immunity in that a defense that is automatically released after exposure to the pathogen and remains constant no matter the type of pathogen.
Lysozyme: An enzyme that destroys bacterial cell walls , in mammals found in sweat, tears, and saliva.
Phagocytosis: Ingestion and breakdown of microorganisms
Barrier Defenses: Skin and Mucous membranes in various systems
Cellular Innate Defenses: Cells that are released instinctively when exposed to pathogen
Toll-like Receptor: A membrane receptor on a phagocytic white blood cell that recognizes fragments of molecules common to a set of pathogens
Phagocytic Cells
Neutrophils: Abundant type of WBC that are attracted to pathogens and engulf and self destruct after defeating pathogen.
Macrophages: Destroy microorganisms and in acquired cell immunity acts as an antigen-presenting cell
Specialized Cells
Dendritic Cells: Presents antigens to T helper cells initiating a primary immune response
Eosinophils: Secretes disruptive enzymes that destroy parasitic worms
Natural Killer Cells: Kills tumor cells and virus-infected cells as part of innate immunity
Mast Cells: Secretes histamine that aids in anti-inflammatory response
Localized Inflammatory Response: A set of a response triggered by signaling molecules released upon injury or infection.
Cytokines: Small peptides that act as signaling molecules
Histamine: Substance that causes blood vessels to dilate and come permeable in inflammatory and allergic responses
Antimicrobial Peptides and Proteins
Interferons:Protein that has antiviral or immune regulatory functions
Complement System: A group of about 30 proteins in blood that amplify inflammaroty response, enhance phagocytosis, or lyse pathogens
Adaptive Immunity: A type of defense that is mediated by B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes that exhibits specificity, memory, and self recognition
Why do receptors provide pathogen-specific recognition in adaptive immunity?
Lymphocytes: Type of WBC that mediates immune responses. The two main classes are B cells and T cells.
T cells: Class of lymphocytes that mature in the thymus, they include both effector cells for the cell-mediated immune response and helper cells required for both branches of adaptive immunity.
B cells: The lymphocytes that complete their development in the bone marrow andante become effector cells for the humoral immune response.
Heavy Chains: Makeup an antibody molecule and B cell receptors, consists of a variable region which contributes to the antigen-binding sites and a constant region.
Light Chains: Make up an antibody molecule and B cell receptor, consists of a variable region, which contributes to the antigen-binding site and a constant site.
Effector Cells: A muscle cell or gland that carries out the body's response to stimuli as directed by signals from the brain or other processing center of the nervous system.
Memory Cells: One of a clone off long-lived lymphocytes, formed during the primary immune response, that remains in a lymphoid organ until activated by exposure to the same antigen that triggered its formation. Activated memory cells mount the secondary immune response.
Clonal Selection: he process by which an antigen selectively binds to and. activates only those lymphocytes bearing receptors specific for the antigen. The selected lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells and a clone of memory cells specific for the stimulating antigen.
Antigens: A substance that elicits a response by binding to receptors of T and B cells.
Antigen Receptors: Surface protein on T and B cells that binds to antigen , indicating adaptive immune responses. The antigen receptors on B cells are are called B cell receptors and the antigen receptors on a T cells are T cell receptors.
Primary immune response:The initial adaptive immune response to an antigen, which appears after a lag about 10-17 days.
Secondary Immune Response: More rabid and robust and lasts longer duration than primary response.
Epitope: A small accessible region of the antigen to which an antigen receptor or antibody binds
MHC: A host protein that functions in antigen presentation. Foreign MHC molecules on transplanted tissue can trigger T cell responses that may lead to rejection of transplant.
Antigen Presentation: The process by which an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell.
Antibody: Protein secreted by plasma cells that binds to a particular antigen, also called immunoglobulin. All antibodies have the same Y-shaped structure and in their monomer form consist of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains.
Immunoglobulin: A protein secreted by plasma cells that binds to a particular antigen. All antibodies have the same Y-shaped structure and in their monomer form consist of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains.
How does adaptive immunity defend against infection?
Humoral Response: The branch of adaptive immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids.
Cell-mediated Response: Involves activation of cytotoxic T cells which defend against infected cells.
Helper T cell: A type of T cell when activated, secretes cytokines that promote the response of B cells and cytotoxic T cells to antigens.
Antigen-presenting cell:Displayed on surface of T cells found in macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells.
Cytotoxic T cells: When activated, kills infected cells as well as certain cancer cells and transplanted cells.
Immunization: The process by generating a state of immunity by artificial means. In vaccination, an inactive or weaken form of the pathogen is administered, inducing B and T cell responses and immunological memory. In passive immunization, antibodies specific for a particular pathogen are administered , conferring immediate but temporary protection.
How can disruptions in immune system cause elicit or exacerbate disease?
Allergies/ Cancer
Autoimmune Diseases: Disorder where immune system turns on itself.
HIV
AIDS: Symptoms and present during late stages of HIV infection, defined by a specific reduction in the number of T cells and the appearance of characteristic secondary infections.
Excertion, stress
Antigenic Variation
Latency