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Animal Physiology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - physical laws limit the forms of animals (strength, diffusion, movement, heat exchange)
        
        example 1: water is extremely dense and viscous compared to air and as a result aquatic animals such as penguins and seals developed a tapered body shape in order to swim fast
        
        example 2: skeleton and muscles of an animal constrain its maximum size
      - animals vary in anatomy due to natural selection and adaptation
    - - Single celled organisms
        
        exchange takes places directly through membrane
      - Multicellular organisms
        
        need specialized surfaces for exchange
        
        rely on branched/folded surfaces connected to circulatory system
        
        rate of exchange = membrane surface area amount of material = total body volume
        
        specialized surfaces are present in: digestive, respitory, circulatory, excretion
        
        interstitial fluid: the fluid filling the space between cells linking them to exchange surfaces
    - - Cells: basic unit of life
      - Tissues: groups of cells with a similar appearance and a common function
        
        Epithelial: sheets that cover body surfaces, line organs function: protection against injury, fluid loss, pathogens
        specialized for absorption, secretion, diffusion
        
        stratified
        
        squamous
        
        cuboidal
        
        columnar
        
        simple
        
        squamous
        
        cuboidal
        
        columnar
        
        psedostratified
        
        columnar
        
        Connective: sparse cells in extracellular matrix supports, binds, and protects
        
        loose
        
        areolar
        
        reticular
        
        adipose
        
        dense (fibrous)
        
        bone
        
        blood
        
        cartilage
        
        fibrocartilage
        
        hyaline
        
        elastic
        
        Muscular: enables movement voluntary and involuntary
        
        skeletal (voluntary control)
        
        cardiac (involuntary control)
        
        smooth muscle (involuntary control)
      - Organs: collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to form a common function
      - Organ System: group of organs that work together to perform vital body functions
        
        Digestive System
        
        function: the breakdown of food into absorbable nutrients and the elimination of waste products
        
        organs in system: mouth, pharynx, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus
        
        Circulatory System
        
        function: internal distribution of nutrients throughout the body
        
        organs in system: heart and blood vessels
        
        Respiratory System
        
        function: gas exchange
        
        organs in system: lungs, trachea, bronchus, larynx, mouth/nasal cavity
        
        Lymphatic System
        
        function: draining of fluids and immunity
        
        organs of system: lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, bone marrow
        
        Excretory/Urinary System
        
        function: disposal of metabolic waste and toxins and osmotic balance in blood
        
        organs in system: kidneys, ureter, urethra, bladder
        
        Endocrine System (hormones)
        
        function: slow acting homeostasis regulation
        
        organs in system: pituitary gland, thyroid, pancreas, other hormone glands
        
        Hypothalamus: biological thermostat
        
        Reproductive System
        
        function: gamete production, embryo development
        
        organs in system: ovaries, testes, ureter, prostate, mammary, uterus, etc.
        
        Nervous System (electrical signals)
        
        function: fast acting homeostasis regulation, response to stimuli
        
        organs in system: brain, spinal cord, nerves
        
        Integumentary System
        
        organs in system: skin, hair, nails
        
        function: protection against outside harm
        
        Skeletal System
        
        function: bones, tendons, cartilage, ligaments
        
        organs in system: body support, protection of internal organs
        
        Muscular System
        
        function: movement
        
        organs in system: muscles
  - - - Regulators: controls internal conditions independent of environmental conditions
      - Conformers: internal conditions change with the enviorment
    - - The mechanisms of homeostasis
        
        stimuli: changes in internal/external enviornment
        
        sensor: detects the stimuli
        
        control center: interprets signal and triggers response
        
        set point: value maintained for a particular variable (ex. temp in humans 98.6 degrees F)
    - - Positive: amplifies a stimulus, drives process to completion (ex. contractions during childbirth)
      - Negative: reduces the effect of stimulus, bringing it back to set point (ex. start sweating bc of overheating, stop sweating when cool)
  - - - Endotherms
        
        generate heat internally via metabolism
        
        stable body temp independent of environmental fluctuations
        
        require more food
        
        mammals, birds, some fish, some insects, some reptiles
        
        Homeotherms: body temperature remains relatively constant
      - Ectotherms
        
        gain heat through their environment
        
        require less food
        
        tolerate larger temperature fluctuations
        
        amphibians, reptiles, fish, most invertebrates
        
        Poikilotherms: body temperature varies with enviornment
    - - Insulation
        
        hair, feathers, and fat reduce heat flow
      - Circulatory
        
        vasodilation: vessels widen leading to heat loss
        
        vasoconstriction: vessels narrow leading to heat conservation
      - Evaporation
        
        sweating or panting leads to evaporation for cooling
      - Behavioral Responses
        
        the adjustment of posture, location or exposure to heat sources
        
        example: dragonflies orientate themselves in an obelisk position to reduce sun exposure
      - Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production
        
        Thermogenesis: muscle activity (shivering, movement)
        
        mitochondria produce heat instead of ATP from brown fat
  - - - basal metabolic rate: minimum metabolic rate during resting, fasting, unstressed endotherm in a thermoneutral environmentq
      - standard metabolic rate: similar to basal but dependent on environmental temperature for ectoderms
      - metabolic rate increases with body mass
        
        smaller animals have higher energy use per gram of tissue
        
        larger animals have a lower per gram energy cost but an overall greater energy use
      - activity greatly increases energy demand
    - - Torpor: short term decrease in activity/metabolism to conserve energy
      - Hibernation: long term decrease in activity/metabolic rate to save energy during winter
      - Estivation: short term decrease in activity/metabolism due to hot/dry conditions
- - - - Minerals (inorganic molecules) needed for enzyme activation
        
        elements with a charge (ions) needed in diet
        
        more than 200 mg daily
        
        calcium
        
        phosphorus
        
        sulfur
        
        potassium
        
        chlorine
        
        sodium
        
        magnesium
        
        less than 200 mg daily
        
        iron
        
        fluorine
        
        iodine
      - Macromolecules
        
        Lipids
        
        animals lack the enzyme to form double bonds in certain fatty acids
        
        essential fatty acids
        
        linoleic acid
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        sugars that are broken down for ATP production
        
        Proteins (enzymes)
        
        20 amino acids are needed to make a complete set of proteins
        
        plants/microorganisms can produce all 20 on their own
        
        animals have the enzymes to synthesize half of these, but the remainder must be obtained via diet
        
        these enzymes are called the essential amino acids
        
        isoleucine
        
        luecine
        
        lysine
        
        methionine
        
        phenyalalanine
        
        threonine
        
        tryptophan
        
        valine
      - Vitamins (organic molecules) needed for enzyme activation
        
        water soluable vitamins
        
        variations of vitamin B
        
        vitamin C
        
        fat soluble vitamins
        
        vitamin A
        
        vitamin D
        
        vitamin E
        
        vitamin K
        
        we do not naturally make these, but we need them to live
  - - - 4 major ingestion mechanisms
        
        filter feeding: strain small organisms/particles from water
        
        substrate feeding: live on or in their food source
        
        fluid feeding: suck nutrient rich fluid from a host or other source
        
        bulk feeding: eat large pieces of food (most animals)
    - - physical digestion: physical breakdown of food via chewing/grinding
      - chemical digestion: breaking of macromolecules into smaller building blocks via chemical reactions
        
        large molecules are broken down via enzymatic hydrolysis so that they may cross the plasma membranes of cells throughout the body
        
        polysaccharides -> monosaccharides
        
        proteins -> peptides -> amino acids
        
        fats/phospholipids -> fatty acids
  - - - single opening that acts as a mouth and anus
      - both digests and distributes materials
      - flatworms, hydras
    - - two openings: mouth and anus
      - food moves in one direction
      - specialized compartments perform digestion and absorption step by step
      - most other animals, including mammals
  - - - salivary glands secrete saliva into the oral cavity
        
        saliva contains enzymes to kickstart digestion and help us with the initial breaking down of food
      - pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine
      - liver produces bile
      - gallbladder stores and concentrates bile
    - - starts mechanical digestion, teeth mash and grind up food
      - tongue shapes food and saliva into bolus to push into pharynx
      - swallowing reflex closes trachea and opens esophagus
      - peristalsis: waves of muscle contractions that move bolus down esophagus
    - - storage and food processing
      - churning: muscular contractions mix food and gastric juice to form chyme
      - sphincter at stomach regulates entry into stomach
      - pyloric sphincter regulates entry into small intestine
      - gastric juice: HCl, mucus, pepsin
    - - major site for digestion and absorption
      - receives chyme and neutralizes stomach acid
      - uses enzymes to process different food stuffs
        
        amylase: carbohydrates
        
        proteases: protein
        
        nucleases: nucleic acids
      - absorbs nutrients after enzymes break them down
    - - colon
        
        completes water recovery, compacts waste, and houses bacteria
      - cecum
        
        fermentation patch in herbivores (reduced in humans)
      - rectum
        
        stores feces before elimination
        
        2 sphincters (1 voluntary, 1 involuntary)
        
        defecation triggered by colon contractions