Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals, The overall flow and transformation of…
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals
Chapter 40
40.1: Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization
Evolution
Many different bodies have evolved over time; Physical laws that govern strength, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange limit the range of animal forms
Convergent evolution
Hierarchy into organizations of body plans
Cells>Tissues>Organs>Organ systems
11 Organ Systems
Epithelial, Muscle, and Connective Tissue
40.2: Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals
Regulating and Conforming
Regulator: Stable internal environment; high energy cost
Conformer: Flexible internal environment; low energy but relies on environment
Homeostasis
Steady state of the body
Negative vs. Positive Feedback
Negative: pushes toward equilibrium (stability)
Positive: pushes away from equilibrium
Circadian rhythm: set of physiological changes that occur roughly every 24 hours
hypothalamus: brain region that also controls the circadian clock
Acclimatization: physiological adjustment to changes in its external environment
40.3: Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior
Thermoregulation
process by which animals maintain their body temperature within a normal range
Endothermic vs. Ectothermic
Ectothermic: animals gain most of their heat from external sources
behavioral responses help regulate temperature
Endothermic: animals are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism
integumentary system
Insulation: Hair,skin,nails,fur
Circulatory Adaptions
Countercurrent exchange: the transfer of heat (or solutes) between fluids that are flowing in opposite direction
Cooling by evaporative heat loss
Adjusts metabolic heat production
Uses acclimatization
40.4: Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment
Bioenergetics
Energy allocation and use
Autotrophs: harness light energy to build energy-rich organic molecules and then use those molecules for fuel
Heterotrophs: obtain their chemical energy from food
Metabolic rate: sum of all the energy an animal uses in a given time
Hibernation: long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity
Torpor: physiological state of decreased activity and metabolism
BMR: minimum metabolic rate of a nongrowing endotherm that is at rest, has an empty stomach, and is not experiencing stress
SMR: metabolic rate of a fasting, nonstresses ectotherm at rest at a particular temperature
metabolic rate depends on size, age, sex, activity, temperature, and nutrition
Chapter 41
41.1: An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic building blocks, and essential nutrients
ATP :Energy needed for chemical processes
ATP, animals ingest and digest nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, for use in cellular respiration and energy storage.
Essential nutrients
substances that an animal requires but cannot assemble from simple organic molecules
include essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals
Vitamins: organic molecules that are required in the diet
Fat soluble: risk of toxicity if overconsumed
Water soluble: safer in excess amounts
Minerals: inorganic nutrients
have key functions in cells, including serving as substrates of enzymes, as coenzymes, and as cofactors in biosynthetic reactions
41.2: Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination
Ingestion
The act of eating or ingesting
First food processing step
Digestion
food is broken down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb
Absorption
the animal’s cells take up (absorb) small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars
Elimination
undigested material passes out of the digestive system, completes the process
Digestive components
Intracellular digestion
Food vacuoles—cellular organelles in which hydrolytic enzymes break down food—are the simplest digestive compartments
Extracellular Digestion
hydrolysis occurs largely by extracellular digestion, the breakdown of food in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animal’s body
Alimentary canal: complete digestive tube from mouth to anus
41.3: Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system
Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
Oral cavity:food processing begins
Teeth cut, mash, and grind, breaking the food into smaller pieces. increases the surface area available for chemical breakdown but also facilitates swallowing
Salivatory glands
Amylase: breaks down starch and glycogen
Digestion in the stomach
Gastric juice
stomach secretes a digestive fluid
Small intestine
Most digestion occurs here
First 25cm is duodenum
Nutrient absorption occurs in lining of intestines
villi and microvilli
Large intestine
colun, cecum, rectum
41.4: Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet
Dental Adaptions
Carnivores have sharp, fang-like teeth
Herbivores have rigid surface teeth that grind tough plant material
Omnivores have a mix of herbivore and carnivore teeth
Stomach and intestinal adaptions
Carnivores have a smaller large intestine and cecum
Herbivores have larger large intestine and cecum
Mutualistic adaptions
an interaction between two species that benefits both of them
41.5: Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite
Regulation of digestion
Endocrine system
Regulation of energy storage
Glucose homeostasis
In humans, liver and muscle cells serve as the primary sites for energy storage and excess molecules are turned into fat
Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1: Born with it
Type 2: Developed in life
caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues
Regulation of Appetite and Consumption
The overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal