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How Animals Are Built and Fed - Coggle Diagram
How Animals Are Built and Fed
Why Animals are the way they are
Why Animal Forms Vary?
Natural Selection/Process where individuals with traits that improve survival and reproduction become more common.
Convergent Evolution
When unrelated species evolve similar traits independently, often because they live in similar environments or face similar selective pressures.
Divergent Evolution
When related species evolve different traits, often due to adapting to different environments or lifestyles.
Adaptation/Inherited traits that enhance fitness in a specific environment Example: Thick fur in arctic animals vs. thin skin in desert reptiles.
Relative Fitness/An individual’s genetic contribution to the next generation compared to others,Traits that increase survival or reproduction are favored
Physiology/Study of how biological structures function.Works hand-in-hand with anatomy
Exchange with the Environment/Animals must exchange gases, nutrients, and waste with surroundings
Surface Area to Volume
Small organisms, have a high surface area relative to volume can exchange directly with environment via diffusion.
Large have lower surface area relative to volume, need specialized systems
The study of the Energy and Heat
Balancing Heat Loss and Gain
Understanding How much energy is used
Energy Conservation
Estivation
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Hibernation
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Torpor
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Metabolic Rate/Energy used per unit time.
Minimum Metabolic Rate
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Influenced by
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Body Heat Source/cellular respiration (ATP production)
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Conduction
Direct transfer of heat between objects in contact./lizard on rock
Convection
Transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid past a surface./wind
Evaporation
Loss of heat as water changes from liquid to vapor/water loss
Radiation
Emission of electromagnetic waves (like infrared heat) from a warmer object to a cooler one./sun
Exchange systems work with homeostatic mechanisms to maintain internal balance
Exchange Surfaces
Respiratory surfaces: lungs, gills → exchange O₂ and CO₂
Digestive surfaces: intestines → absorb nutrients
Excretory surfaces: kidneys → remove nitrogenous waste
Skin: in some animals (e.g., amphibians) → gas exchange
Regulating and Conforming
Regulators
Maintain internal conditions despite external changes.
Endotherm/Otter in the Water
Conformers
Internal conditions change with environment
Ectotherm/Fish in the water
Thermoregulation and Energy Use
Endothermy vs. Ectothermy
Endotherms
Generate heat internally via metabolism.
Can live in varied climates.
Ectotherms
Rely on external heat sources.
Behaviorally regulate temperature (e.g., basking).
Thermoregulatory Mechanisms
Insulation
Reduces heat loss.
Brown Fat In Bears
Circulatory Adaptations
Vasodilation: Blood vessels widen → heat loss.
Vasoconstriction: Vessels narrow → heat retention.
Countercurrent Exchange: Warm blood heats cold blood returning from extremities.
Evaporative Cooling
Removes heat via water loss.
Behavioral Responses/Ectotherms, and sometimes endotherms, control body temperature through behavioral responses
a dragonfly’s “obelisk” posture
Physiological Thermostats and Fever
Role of the Hypothalamus
Located in the brain, the hypothalamus is the central control center for thermoregulatio
Thermostat Function
The hypothalamus acts like a biological thermostat
If body temperature drops below the set point:
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How do they Stay the way they are/Homeostasis
Maintaining stable internal conditions.
Components
Set Point: Target value (e.g., 98.6°F for body temp)
Stimulus: Change from set point.
Sensor: Detects change (e.g., thermoreceptors).
Response: Returns system to set point.
Mechanisms of Homeostasis/Always a Cycle
Negative Feedback
Reduces deviation from set point/ Stops whatever is going on
Example: Sweating to cool down when overheated
Positive Feedback
Amplifies change.
Keeps the process is going until something occurs
Example: Oxytocin release during Labor increases contractions.
NOTE NOT CHILDBIRTH
Alterations in Homeostasis
Circadian rhythm, a set of physiological changes that occur roughly every 24 hours
Acclimatization
Temporary adjustment to environment
High Altitudes lover Oxygen levels
Time Zones
Endocrine vs. Nervous:
Endocrine: slow, long-lasting (hormones)
Nervous: fast, short-term (electrical signals)
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
Cell: Basic unit of life.
Tissue: Group of similar cells performing a function.
Organ: Structure made of multiple tissues.
Organ System
Nervous System
Controls body activities with electrical signals; processes sensory information and coordinates responses.
Circulatory System
Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body.
Respiratory System
Exchanges gases,takes in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
Digestive System
Breaks down food into nutrients for energy, growth, and repair; eliminates solid waste.
Excretory (Urinary) System
Removes waste products from the blood and regulates water and salt balance.
Endocrine System
Regulates body functions using hormones.
Immune/Lymphatic System
Defends the body against infections and diseases
Skeletal System
Provides structure, support, and protection; produces blood cells; stores minerals
Muscular System
Enables movement, maintains posture, and produces heat
Integumentary System
Protects the body; regulates temperature; prevents water loss
Reproductive System
Produces gametes (sperm/egg); enables reproduction
Nutritional Requirements
What’s Needed in a Diet
Chemical Energy
for ATP production (mainly from carbohydrates and fats)
Organic Building Blocks
or biosynthesis (amino acids, fatty acids)
Essential Nutrients
Essential amino acids: must be obtained from food (e.g., lysine)
Essential fatty acids: unsaturated fats (e.g., linoleic acid)
Vitamins: organic compounds needed in small amounts
Minerals: inorganic nutrients (e.g., calcium, iron)
Why RDA Alone Isn’t Enough
RDA covers vitamins/minerals, not energy or building blocks
Essential amino acids → needed for protein synthesis
Essential fatty acids → needed for membranes and hormones
Fiber → needed for digestive health
Common Dietary Types
Vegetarian: no meat
Pescatarian: includes fish
Vegan: excludes all animal products
Risk: B12 deficiency (only in animal products), iron, calcium
Solution: fortified foods, supplements
Solution: fortified foods, supplements
Food Processing Stages
Ingestion
Feeding Mechanisms
Filter feeders: baleen whales
Substrate feeders: caterpillars
Fluid feeders: mosquitoes
Bulk feeders: Anaconda, lions
Digestion
Mechanical: chewing, stomach churning
Chemical: enzymatic breakdown
Intracellular: rare (sponges)
Extracellular: common (digestive tract)
Absorption
Nutrients absorbed into blood or lymph
Small intestine: primary site
Elimination
Feces: undigested food
Urine: metabolic waste (urea, salts)
Variation in Diet
Herbivores
Adaptations:
Flat molars for grinding cellulose.
Long digestive tracts for fermentation.
Specialized chambers (e.g., rumen in cows).
Carnivores
Adaptations:
Sharp teeth and claws for capturing prey.
Short digestive tracts (meat is easier to digest).
Strong stomach acid for protein breakdown.
Omnivores
Adaptations:
Mixed dentition: incisors, canines, molars.
Flexible digestive systems.
Behavioral flexibility in food sourcing.
Vitamin vs. Mineral
Vitamins
Water-Soluble Vitamins
Dissolve in water; not stored in the body → excess excreted in urine
Vitamin C: antioxidant, collagen synthesis
B-complex vitamins:
B1 (Thiamine): energy metabolism
B2 (Riboflavin): coenzyme in redox reactions
B3 (Niacin): NAD/NADP synthesis
B6 (Pyridoxine): amino acid metabolism
B12 (Cobalamin): red blood cell formation, DNA synthesis
Folate (B9): neural development, DNA synthesis
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Dissolve in fat; stored in liver and fatty tissues → excess can accumulate.
Ex
Vitamin A: vision, immune function
Vitamin D: calcium absorption, bone health
Vitamin E: antioxidant, protects cell membranes
Vitamin K: blood clotting
Minerals
inorganic, structural or enzymatic (e.g., calcium)
Macrominerals (needed in larger amounts)
Trace Minerals (needed in small amounts)
Enzyme cofactors
Magnesium, zinc, and copper are needed for enzyme activity.
Deficiency Examples
Iron → anemia
Vitamin D → rickets
Iodine → goiter
Why Balance Matters?
Multivitamins: helpful for gaps, but not a substitute for a balanced diet
Too much (especially fat-soluble) → toxicity
Too little → deficiency diseases
Human Digestive System
Organs and Functions
Mouth: mechanical digestion, amylase
Esophagus: peristalsis
Stomach: acid, pepsin → protein digestion
Small Intestine
Duodenum: receives bile and enzymes
Large Intestine (Colon): water absorption, feces formation
Rectum/Anus: elimination
Accessory Organs
Liver: bile production, detoxification
Gallbladder: bile storage
Pancreas: enzymes (lipase, protease), bicarbonate
Bile: emulsifies fats
Digestion Sites
Physical Digestion: mouth, stomach
Chemical Digestion: small intestine
Absorption: small intestine
Villi/Microvilli: increase surface area
Fat Absorption: via lacteals → lymphatic system
Regulation of Digestion and Energy
Hormonal Regulation
Gastrin: stimulates stomach acid
Secretin: stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonate
Cholecystokinin (CCK): stimulates bile and enzyme release
Steps
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