Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Chapters 40-41 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Endotherms generate enough heat for their body through metabolism
        
        Also have internal cooling mechanisms
        
        Ex. sweating, panting, vasodilation
        
        Evaporative heat loss is triggered when environment is above body temperature
        
        Advantageous for large fluctuations in environment
        
        Ex. Thermogenesis, insulation
        
        Rate of thermogenesis can be adjusted depending on rate of heat loss
        
        Increased by physical activity
        
        Nonshivering thermogenesis - endocrine signals cause mitochondria to be more active
        
        Brown fat is specialized for heat production (lots of mitochondria)
      - Ectotherms mainly rely on external sources of heat
        
        Adjust temperature through behavior
        
        Ex. seeking shade, basking
        
        Ex. Dragonflies' obelisk position to take in less heat, lizards hiding in the winter
        
        Cells can produce variants of enzymes with different optimal temperatures
        
        Produce anti freeze proteins
        
        Proportions of lipids in membranes can change to suit colder temperatures
      - Not mutually exclusive
    - - Increases blood flow and releases more heat
    - - Decreases blood flow and keeps heat inside
    - - Ex. A snake that has to bask in the sun, bats when entering hibernation
    - - Ex. Human body temperature is usually about the same
    - - Ex. Hair, feathers, fur, adipose
  - - - Size
        
        Large animals require more food as a whole
        
        Less heat loss occurs, but large amounts of cells and tissues are needed to function
        
        Small animals have a higher metabolic rate
        
        Higher surface area to volume ratio leads to more heat loss
      - Activity
        
        Metabolic rate increases with activity
        
        Both endotherms and ectotherms
        
        A bug flapping its wings is enough to increase MR
    - - The sum of all the energy an animal uses in a given timer interval
        
        Measured by monitoring the animal's rate of heat loss
        
        Can also be measured by oxygen intake or carbon dioxide produced
        
        Rate of food consumption over long periods of time can also be evaluated
        
        For metabolic rate over long periods of time
      - Quantifies energy use
      - Energy usually measured in calories
      - BMR - minimum metabolic rate of a nongrowing endotherm
      - SMR - minimum metabolic rate of an ectotherm at a particular temperature
      - BMR and SMR show that ectotherms need significantly less calories than a human
    - - Torpor - decreased activity and metabolism
        
        Small endotherms exhibit daily torpor
        
        Hibernation is a long term torpor
        
        For winter cold and food scarcity
        
        Animals hibernating will periodically raise body temperature, and lower it again
        
        Squirrels, bears
      - Estivation - slow metabolism and inactivity when it's too hot
        
        Typically occurs in desert animals
  - - - Affects the way an animal interacts with its environment
      - Ex. a penguin shivering produces heat
    - - Varies so much because of natural selection
        
        Results in close match between form and function
      - Ex. Blubber reduces heat loss in a penguin
    - - Ex. Properties of water limit the shapes swimmers can take on
        
        Causes convergent evolution between seals, penguins, and tunas
      - Ex. Bigger body plans require thicker skeletons
    - - Body plan only works if every cell has access to a suitable aqueous environment
        
        Simple animals take on a body plan that allow for direct exchange
        
        Ex. A hydra is constantly in contact with pond water on the inside and outside
        
        Ex. A thin and flat tapeworm allows most of the worms cell to be in contact with its host
        
        Bigger and complex animals have a smaller surface area to volume ratio
        
        Specialized branched and folded structures allow for sufficient exchange
        
        This increases surface area
        
        Digestive, respiratory, and circulatory systems
        
        Interstitial fluids connect exchange surfaces to the rest of the cells
        
        Complex bodies help maintain a stable internal environment
        
        Circulatory fluid like blood
        
        Exchanges between blood and interstitial fluid bring nutrients to every cell and rid of waste
    - - Organs can have more than one fuction
      - Digestive system
        
        Food processing
        
        Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus
      - Circulatory system
        
        Internal distribution of materials
        
        Heart, blood vessels, blood
      - Respiratory system
        
        Gas exchange
        
        Lungs, trachea
      - Immune and lymphatic system
        
        Body defense
        
        Bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels
      - Excretory systen
        
        Disposal of metabolic wastes and regulation of osmotic balance of blood
        
        Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
      - Endocrine system
        
        Coordination of body activities like digestion and metabolism
        
        Pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal
      - Reproductive system
        
        Gamete production, fertilization, developing embryo
        
        Ovaries or testes
      - Nervous system
        
        Coordination, detection of stimuli and forming responses
        
        Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs
      - Integumentary system
        
        Protection, thermoregulation
        
        Skin and its derivatives
      - Skeletal system
        
        Support, internal protection, movement
        
        Literal skeleton
      - Muscular system
        
        Skeletal muscles
        
        Movement
      - Tissues
        
        Epithelial
        
        Simple squamous
        
        Exchanges material via diffusion
        
        Blood vessels, air sacs of the lungs
        
        Stratified squamous
        
        Protection
        
        Skin, mouth
        
        Cuboidal
        
        Secretion
        
        Kidney tubules, thyroid gland
        
        Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
        
        Mucous membranes
        
        Respiratory tract
        
        Simple columnar
        
        Secretion and absorption
        
        Intestines
        
        Connective
        
        Areolar
        
        Binds epithelia to other tissues and holds organs in place
        
        Dense (fibrous)
        
        Dense with collagenous fibers
        
        Tendons and ligaments
        
        Bone
        
        Makes skeleton
        
        Adipose
        
        Fat storage
        
        Blood
        
        Plasma matrix
        
        Defense, blood clotting, carry oxygen
        
        Cartilage
        
        Found in intervertebral disks
        
        Flexible support
        
        Muscle
        
        Skeletal
        
        Voluntary
        
        Attached to bones by tendons
        
        Smooth
        
        Internal organs; digestive tract, urinary bladder
        
        Involuntary
        
        Cardiac
        
        Involuntary
        
        Forms contractile wall of the heart
      - Nervous
        
        Receives, processes, and transmits information
        
        Neurons
        
        Receives impulses from other neurons
        
        Glia
        
        Helpers; nourish, insulate, replenish neurons
    - - The endocrine system releases signaling molecules into the bloodstream
        
        Hormones are the signaling molecules
        
        Only cells with receptors for a particular hormone will respond
        
        Ex. thyroid stimulating hormones only act on thyroid gland cells
        
        Specialized for gradual changes throughout the body
      - The nervous system transmits signals to specific locations
        
        Act on other neurons, muscle cells, and secretory cells
        
        Travel on axons
        
        Response limited to cells that can connect to the axon
        
        Communicates by the pathway taken
        
        Fast communication for reflexes, responses to the environment
      - Both hormones and neurons signal by a stimulus, target location, and a response
  - - - Animals may be a mix of both
        
        Ex. a bass conforms to water temperature, but regulates solute concentration
      - Conforming - internal conditions reflect outside environment
      - Regulation - the use of internal mechanisms to deal with external change
    - - Acclimatization - physiological adjustment to changes in external environment
        
        Ex. Elk going up a mountain will breath more deeply and rapidly to make up for lower oxygen
      - Circadian rhythm - set of physiological changes that occur every 24 hours
        
        This is maintained even when other variables are different
      - Fluctuations above or below the set point are the stimulus
        
        Detected by a sensor and triggers a response
      - Control systems try to maintain a set point
- - - - Needs a source of organic carbon and organic nitrogen
      - Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
      - Essential nutrients - Cannot be assembled from simple organic molecules
        
        Amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals
        
        Used as enzyme substrates, coenzymes, and cofactors
        
        Essential amino acids can't be produced by the body
        
        Isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine (histidine in infants)
        
        Animal proteins are complete and provide all essential amino acids
        
        Plant proteins are incomplete
      - Certain essential fatty acids can't be produced from the body
        
        Linoleic acid
        
        Can be obtained from seeds, grains, and vegetables
      - Minerals - Inorganic nutrients required in small amounts
        
        More than 200 mg per day: Ca, P, S, K, Cl, Na, Mg
        
        Fe, F, I
      - Vitamins - Organic molecules required in small amounts
        
        Coenzymes: B1, B6, B7, B9
        
        Components of coenzymes: B2, B3, B5
        
        Nucleic acid and red blood cells: B12
        
        Collagen synthesis: C
    - - Essential nutrient deficiencies can cause deformities, disease, or death
      - Ex. Fragile bones
  - - - Ex. Humpback whale, caterpillar, python, butterfly
    - - Begins as soon as food enters the mouth
        
        Both chemical and mechanical breakdown
        
        Saliva contains amylase, mucus, and buffers
        
        Anticipation of food triggers production of saliva
        
        Tongue forms food into a bolus to push into the pharynx
        
        Leads to trachea (airway) and esophagus (connects to stomach)
        
        Food is pushed along through peristalsis in esophagus
        
        Sphincter at the end regulates passage of food into the stomach
    - - In the stomach and majority of small intestine
      - Gastric juices mix with food to make chyme
        
        HCl and pepsin are the components in gastric juice that liquify the food
        
        Hcl produced by parietal cells
        
        Activates pepsin
        
        Pepsin produced by chief cells
        
        Contents move into small intestine through peristalsis
        
        First 25 cm: duodenum, where chyme mixes with digestive juices
        
        Stimulates pancreas to secrete bicarbonate
        
        Neutralizes the acidity of chyme and acts as a buffer
        
        Bile salts act as emulsifiers that break apart fat
        
        Bile is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder
    - - Contents of duodenum move by peristalsis into jejunum and ileum
      - Absorption occurs along lining
        
        Covered in villi and microvilli
        
        Maximizes surface area and increases nutrient absorption
        
        Most contents sent to liver via hepatic portal vein
        
        Liver regulates nutrient distribution and detoxifies
        
        Triglycerides are broken down, absorbed by epithelial cells, and reassembled
        
        Coated with phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins to make chylomicrons
        
        Exit small intestine by entering a lacteal
        
        Lacteal lymph carries chylomicrons to the heart
      - Transport across epithelial cells can be passive or active: active allows for more absorption
    - - Large intestine: consists of the colon, cecum, and rectum
        
        Colon leads to rectum and anus
        
        Completes recovery of water; feces are what is left
        
        Feces solidify more as they move along the colon
        
        Feces are stored in the rectum before they are eliminated
        
        Cecum - Ferments ingested material (more important in herbivores)
      - Fiber helps move food along the alimentary canal
    - - Extracellular: Hydrolysis occurs in compartments continuous with the outside of the body
        
        Ex. a hydra
        
        Allow animals to digest food without digesting themselves
      - Intracellular: Hydrolysis occurs in vacuoles
        
        Ex. a sponge
  - - - Omnivores have broad, rigid molars and small canines and incisors
      - Carnivores have jagged molars and big canines and incisors
      - Omnivores have a mix of both
      - Allowed mammals to be succesful
    - - Carnivores' are shorter because meat is easier to digest
      - Herbivores' are long because of the plant cell walls
    - - Many have enzymes to digest plant matter
  - - - Processing is not constantly activated
        
        Activated stepwise with ach new compartment
        
        Ex. Arrival of food in the stomach triggers churning and the release of gastric juices
    - - Excess energy is stored in liver and muscle glycogen
        
        Once full, rest are stored in adipose
      - In a deficit, human body uses liver glycogen, then muscle glycogen, and fat last
      - Adipose is incredibly space efficient
    - - Insulin
        
        Triggers the uptake of glucose when levels are high
        
        Made by beta cells
      - Glucagon
        
        Triggers release of glucose when levels are low
        
        Made by alpha cells
      - Takes place in the liver
      - Both glucagon and insulin are produced in the pancreas
      - Type 1 diabetes - beta cells are destroyed
      - Type 2 diabetes - target cells fail to respond to insulin
    - - ghrelin secreted by the stomach wall makes you hungry
      - Insulin, PYY, and leptine suppress appetite