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Chapter six: Into the Cell., Organelles within eukaryotes. - Coggle Diagram

- - - - transmission electron microscope: this scope is used for the internal structure of cells. it aims the electron beam at a thin piece of the specimen. the specimen stained with heavy metal atoms, which attach to certain structures, which enhance the electron density and let the passing electrons scatter to those denser regions.
- - - - within the nucleus is chromosomes, which are made up of proteins called chromatin. when the cell is in interphase chromosomes are indistinguishable from one another. but when the cell is preparing to dovide the chromosomes begin to condense into visible shapes (prophase).
  - - - the system has various tasks around the cell including: protein synthesis, transporting proteins around and out of the cell, metabolism and movement of lipids, and detoxing poisons. the membranes of this system are related by direct physical continuity or transferring membrane segments via vesicles (sacs made of membrane).
      - endoplasmic reticulum: making up over half the cell the ER is made up of cisternae. there is an internal part of the ER that is continuous with the nuclear envelope it is called the ER lumen. there are two sections of the ER that differ in function and looks: the Smooth ER and the Rough ER.
        
        smooth ER: lacking ribosomes the smooth ER functions with lipid synthesis, metabolism of carbs, storing calcium ions, and detoxing drugs and poisons. the smooth Er with lipid synthesis also makes hormones like those for adrenal glands. for detoxing, you can look at liver cells. it will add hydroxyl groups to make drugs more water soluble.
        
        rough ER: produces proteins for the cell to secrete via the ribosomes within its walls. most of these proteins are Glycoproteins, aka proteins with carbs covalently bonded with them. the Secretory proteins that're formed are separate from those within the cytosol, depart from the rough ER wrapped in membranes of vesicles from the transitional ER and taken to the Golgi apparatus.
        
        Golgi apparatus: the cell's warehouse. products from the ER are modified in the apparatus, stored, then sent out to other destinations. this organelle also has cisternae which are engaged to transfer parts between the Golgi and other structures all separated from the cytosol.
        
        Cis face: usually located near the ER this face of the golgi and deals with vesicles that bud from the ER and adds its membrane and contents to the cis face.
        
        trans face: this face gives rise to vesicles that pinch and travel to other sites within the cell.
        
        the golgi also produces some macromolecules. in plants the golgi makes noncellulose polysaccharides.
        
        lysosome: this organelle is designed to "digest" aka hydrolyzes macromolecules. they contain lysosomal which works best in an acidic environment. if a lysosome leaks the enzyme would not react much due to the cytosol having near neutral PH. but if many were to leak this could destroy the cell. they are made in the rough ER and transferred to the golgi for processing.
        
        phagocytosis: with many protists they engulf their food whole and lysosomes form a "food vacuole" which their enzymes digest the food. their digestion produces simple sugars, amnio acids, and various other monomers to pass into the Cytosol for the cell's food.
        
        autophagy: when a lysosome is used to recycle a cell's own material. sometimes an organelle or pieces of cytosol are surrounded by a double membrane of unknown origin. A lysosome will fuse with the outer membrane, using its enzymes to dismantle the inner membrane and enclosed materials, as its digested the material produced is recycled into the cytosol for reuse.
        
        Vacuoles: this organelle is derived from the ER and golgi, and is selective about transporting solutes. due to this selectiveness the solution within the vacuole is different from the cytosol.
        
        contractile vacuoles: in many unicellular protists within fresh water use this type of vacuole to pump out excess water out of the cell. this creates a stable concentration of ions and molecules.
        
        central vacuole: found in mature plant cells this vacuole is used to store a solution called cell sap. this sap is a storage unit of inorganic ions (like potassium and chloride). it also plays a huge role in the growth of plant cells because as the vacuole absorbs water and enlarges this allows the plant cell to also grow bigger.
        
        peroxisomes: a single membrane organelle, the peroxisomes use their enzymes to remove hydrogen atoms from various substrates and transfer them to oxygen. this produces H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) as a byproduct. they have many different functions like using O to break down fatty acids to be used in cellular respiration.
  - - - microtubules: thick hollow rods made from globular proteins aka tubulins. each tubulin protein is a dimer. a molecule made of two components. they grow by adding dimers but can also be disassembled and tubulins can be used to build others elsewhere. they shape and support the cell, and also serve as tracks along organelles that have motor proteins. microtubules guide vesicles from the ER to the Golgi, and the from the golgi to the membrane.
        
        within animal cells these microtubules grow from centrosomes. this is a region usually located near the nucleus. within the centrosome is a pair of centrioles, each has 9 sets of triplet microtubules in a ring. many eukaryote cells lack centrosomes and instead organize microtubules by other means.
        
        flagella and cilia are made up of microtubules, which helps these cells move. they have a large motor protein called dynein which extends from microtubule doublet to the adjacent doublet. it also of course uses ATP for energy.
        
        microfilaments: thin solid rods built from molecules of actin. their role is to bear tension, so the outer cytoplasmic layer of the cell called the cortex. thousands of actin filaments and thicker filaments are made of a protein called myosin, which interact and cause contractions of muscle cells.
        
        intermediate filaments: they are the middle ground of filaments. they are only found in some animal cells like vertebrates. they also specialize in bearing tension like microfilaments. they are a diverse group and can be made of proteins and even keratin. they are far more permanent than the other tubules to the point they persist after the cell dies. like the outer layer of skin on a human.