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Botanical Anatomy - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Derived Novel Trait
    - - Apomorphy shared by two or more taxa
        
        Thought to have evolved in their most recent ancestor
      - Synonymous with "Homology"
    - - Character is "newer than"
    - - Character is "older than"
    - - trait has gained or lost independently in separate lineages during evolution
    - - Independent evolution of a similar trait in two or more taxa
  - - - Totipotent Region
      - Ancestral
        
        Found in Charophytes
      - Growth by Mitosis
        
        Mitosis
        
        Prophase
        
        Metaphase
        
        Anaphase
        
        Telophase
        
        Ends with Cytokinesis
      - Synapomorphy
        
        Charophytes mainly filamentous
        
        Bryophytes protonema
        
        Filamentous
        
        Apical Bud
      - Matures into Transition Tissues
        
        Ground Meristem
        
        will be most of plant body
        
        Procambium
        
        will become vascular tissue
        
        Protoderm
        
        Will be dermal tissue
    - - Cytokinesis occurs in a single plane
        
        Elongation of filament
      - Eventually arrange in 3D
        
        Allows to grow in an Oblique plane
    - - Splitting of shoot tip into 2 groupings of Meristematic Tissue
        
        Laid foundation for polysporangiates
        
        Large complex plants
        
        Specialized organ systems
      - Evolved later
      - Eventually, terminal sporophyte replaced
        
        Necessary prior to indeterminacy
      - Thus, we have bifurcate branching
  - - - Grow new organs
      - Grow new tissue
      - From shoot apex
- - - - All but Liverworts present with Stomata
        
        Liverworts have evolved to lose the stomata
    - - Gas exchange in higher plants
        
        CO2 in
        
        O2 out
      - Control of water loss allows for plants to grow large
    - - Devonian Period Sporangia
        
        ~400mYa
        
        Extinct lineages include...
        
        Rhiniophytes
        
        Cooksonia
        
        Similarities link to similar functions in extant angiosperms
        
        Some evidence of air chambers
        
        Bean-like shape
        
        Inner wall thickening
      - Origins
        
        Aid in sporophyte desiccation
        
        Stomata located on and near the base of the sporangia
        
        Thought to help dry out sporangia so that the spores can be released
        
        No intercellular space
        
        Pseudostomata continuous with epidermis
        
        Space is filled with fluid
        
        any space is only made by cells pulling apart
        
        Eventually, stomatal canal evolved
        
        Aiding in diffusion of minerals and nutrients from gametophyte to sporophyte
        
        Removal of waste from cell death
        
        Lower stomatal frequency
        
        Location on non-photosynthetic tissue
        
        Extant early lineages have stomata that only open
    - - Monocots
        
        "grasses"
        
        stomata have dumbbell shape
        
        Aligned with epidermal cells
      - Eudicots
        
        Kidney shaped
        
        random orientation
    - - Guard Cell Control
        
        Active Metabolic Process
        
        Plants actively pump ions across the membrane of the guard cell
        
        This increases turgor pressure
        
        Water follows ions via osmosis
        
        Hypotonic to Hypertonic
        
        Cytoskeleton microfibrils radially oriented
      - Photosynthetic Dependent
        
        Provided ATP for K+ pump
        
        Protons are pumped out
        
        Water moves in through aquaporins
        
        Closure at night or under water stress
      - Water Use Efficiency
        
        Amount of water loss compared to carbon gained
        
        ABA stress hormone correlates to aperture area
        
        Angiosperms also directly respond to the vapor pressure deficit
        
        Prevents embolism
  - - - Non-Vascularized Plants are called Bryophytes
      - Vascularized plants are called Tracheophytes
        
        thought to be synapomorphic
    - - some of the earliest evidence of vascularization come from Cooksonia
        
        there is evidence of transitioning steps along the path of evolution
      - some of the earliest plants that are still in existence are Lycophytes
        
        some of the first true forests
    - - early land plants were considered to be poikilohydric
        
        changing their water potential with that of the environment
        
        Likely to depend on water storage, as in the vacuole to extend hydration
        
        are able to recover after desiccation
        
        stayed small to reduce demand for water
        
        live in perennially wet substrates (streamsides)
        
        there are very few modern vascular plants that are poikilohydric; most are homoiohydric
      - the earliest water conducting cells are Hydroids
        
        Bryophytes
        
        water conducting cells
        
        no plasmodesmata
        
        thought to aid in refilling after cavitation
        
        Hydroids are an apomorphic trait
        
        similar function, different origin from true vascular tissue
        
        thought to have evolved separately from the Tracheophyte lineage
        
        no lignin
      - Tracheary Elements
        
        Die to form long and hollow strands to improve water flow
        
        thickened with lignin
        
        waterproofing and structural support
        
        Step-Wise progression through Fossil Record
        
        Rhynia Tracheids are partially thickened
        
        vascular tissue not lignified
        
        Lignified Tracheids
        
        Horneophyton
        
        annular to helical cell wall thickening
        
        during Devonian Period
        
        increase in tracheid size
        
        increase in tracheid reinforcement
        
        secondary cell walls
        
        Rapid increase in xylem content
        
        Early Tracheids
        
        water transport only due to little support
        
        lignified
        
        relatively long and wide
        
        early tracheids still in existence are:
        
        Ferns
        
        tracheids + vessel elements in rhizomes of some species
        
        Lycophytes
        
        Pit Membranes
        
        True Tracheids
        
        Single-celled conduits
        
        Lignified
        
        Ornamented
        
        with cell walls being either...
        
        2 more items...
        
        apomorphic
        
        evolved just once
        
        This unites all Tracheophytes
        
        Function in both...
        
        Water transport
        
        support
        
        tapered at ends
        
        rather narrow
        
        Pine Tracheids
        
        function in water movement and support
        
        Torus Margo pit membrane
        
        move to prevent cavitation
        
        prevents embolism from spreading throughout the tissue
        
        this is an adaptation to dry and cold environments
        
        Vessel Elements
        
        Evolved from Tracheids
        
        do not see evolutionarily until Angiosperms (except for some independent origin in the fern groups
        
        Homogenous pit membrane
        
        Partially Digested Primary wall
        
        protected by secondary wall border
        
        typically occupy the radial vessel walls
        
        grouped near vessel-vessel junctions located sporadically along the vessel wall
        
        Have changed a lot from whence they came
        
        most Vessel Elements are very short, and wider
        
        end walls have different pattern compared to their lateral walls
        
        Vessel Element Differentiation
        
        Apical Meristem
        
        Vacuolization
        
        Elongation
        
        Secondary Cell Wall
        
        Annular
        
        Helical
        
        Reticulate
        
        Porous
    - - Food conducting cells
        
        specialized plasmodesmata in end walls
        
        Specialized lining along ER
        
        tonoplast breaks down so that cytoplasm mixes with vacuole contents
        
        common in Bryophytes
      - Sieve cells
        
        found only in Gymnosperms
        
        always accompanied by an albuminous cell
        
        specialized parenchyma cell
        
        transport photosynthate, hormones, and electrical signals
      - Sieve tube elements
        
        have sieve plates
        
        area with many sieve pores
        
        usually on end wall
        
        primary cell wall
        
        need companion cell
        
        connected through branched plasmodesmata
        
        has all of requisite organelles
        
        alive, but with few organelles
  - - - likely 5 times
    - - lepidondrids
        
        320mYa
        
        vascular cambium only divided internally
      - Archeopteris
        
        devonian/carboniferous
        
        reproduced via spores
    - - takes many genes and pathways to get from roots to shoots
      - Growth in girth
      - creates secondary xylem
        
        wood
      - Creates secondary phloem
        
        inner bark
      - creates ground tissue
        
        rays
      - produces growth rings over time
      - Vascular Cambium
        
        2 types stem cells
        
        fusiform initials
        
        xylem and phloem
        
        fascicular cambium
        
        ray initials
        
        ray cells
        
        interfascicular cambium
    - - can differentiate early vs late season
    - - sapwood
        
        lighter color
        
        outer ring
        
        functions in water transport
      - heartwood
        
        older part
        
        no longer functions in water transport
        
        functions in storage
    - - softwoods
        
        mainly gymnosperms (like pines)
        
        full of tracheids only
        
        little room for fibers
      - Hardwoods
        
        angiosperms
        
        vessel elements which permit room for fiber due to efficiency
- - - - Vegitative Changes
      - The way that they survived
      - sexual union
      - dispersion
    - - Early Earth had very low levels of oxygen and 8-15x higher levels of CO2
      - Diffusion of oxygen limited size of plants
      - Weak Ozone
        
        Higher mutation rate
      - Fossil Evidence and Molecular Clock
        
        Terrestrialization ~450mYa
        
        Major evolutionary changes and morphologies followed
        
        Multicellular sporophyte (alternation of generations
        
        Retention of zygote and embryo within protective tissues
        
        The way plants grow changed
        
        Early origins (algae)
      - Algae
        
        Closest living relative to embryophytes are the Charophycean algae
        
        Evidence
        
        Morphological
        
        At times grows very similar to what we see in Liverworts
        
        Many scientists think that Charophycean Algae and the embryohpytes shoul
        
        Many scientists today think that the Charophytes and the Embryophytes should form a monophyletic group and should be together in "Streptophyta"
        
        1 more item...
      - Fossil Evidence
        
        Spores
        
        ~470mYa
        
        Sporopollenin Wall
        
        Later Spores have Trilete Marks
        
        Tetrad from Meiosis
        
        Cryptospores
        
        Likely from Land Plants
        
        Liverwort Macrofossils
        
        Dichotomous Branching
        
        390 mYa
        
        The First Macrofossils
        
        Cooksonia Sporophytes
        
        No living relative
        
        ~425mYa
        
        Gametophytes Complex
        
        Stomata
        
        Conducting Elements
        
        Similar to Extant Liverworts
        
        Early land plants gametophyte dominant
        
        Most Paleobotanists would agree this is one of the first land plants
        
        Vascular Tissue
        
        Evidence from spores ~443mYa
        
        Tracheid fossils ~415mYa
        
        Shows land plants were well dominant by the Devonian Period
        
        By this point, mostly sporophyte dominant
        
        No longer restricted to damper areas
  - - - Alternation of Generations
        
        two major stages
        
        Gametophyte stage (dominant in early land plants)
        
        haploid
        
        dominance example: Liverwort
        
        Sporophyte later evolves dominance
        
        diploid
        
        dominance example: Most modern plants
    - - Leaves
        
        Evolve fairly late
      - Stomata
        
        Arrives earlier than leaves
        
        Allows gases to bypass the cuticle
    - - Water and Food Conduction
        
        Forests won't arrive until we get tracheids
    - - First step: Downward growing Rhizomes
      - Positive Gravitropism
      - Negative Phototropism
      - Evolved a protective Root Cap
      - Evolved new way of branching
        
        Early roots branched at the tip
    - - 2 major groups
        
        Gymnosperms
        
        Naked Seed
        
        Pines
        
        Spruces
        
        Cycads
        
        Angiosperms
        
        Hidden Seed
        
        Evolved Later than Gymnosperms
      - First to Evolve are...
        
        Seed Ferns
        
        All exinct
      - Seed evolution necessitates...
        
        That the gametophyte become completely dependent on the sporophyte
        
        and that the egg become protected by special layers of tissue
    - - Scientists believe that flowers are a "specialized stem"
        
        Leaves evolved into petals
        
        Anthers evolved from leaves
        
        Carpal evolved from leaves
      - Selective Pressures
        
        Attraction
        
        Dispersal
        
        Coevolution
- - - - Rhizoids
        
        Anchorage
        
        movement via capillary action and osmosis
      - Rhizomorphs
        
        gravitropism
      - shoots turn into roots
      - evolution was convergent
      - root meristem helps with phylogeny
    - - primary root
        
        derived from radicle
        
        main root
      - Lateral root
    - - root cap
      - apical meristem
      - pericycle
        
        allows for growth of lateral roots
      - endoderm
      - root hairs
      - cortex
    - - Lycophytes
        
        example: selaginella
        
        no root cap
        
        no root hairs
      - Monocots
        
        pith in stele surrounded by endodermis and cortex
        
        Cortex = parenchyma cells
        
        Endodermis has casparian strip to prevent apoplastic movement
        
        Pith
        
        Xylem and Phloem
        
        Pericycle
      - Eudicots
        
        stele does NOT have pith
  - - - Initially there was resistance to phyllad evolution due to high atm pressures and temps
        
        eventually stomata evolved smaller and more numerous
      - Likely at least 5 separate origins
      - Necessary for optimal light interception
      - much variation is leaf development
    - - Chlorenchyma
        
        Specialized parenchyma that contains chloroplasts
      - Aerenchyma
        
        another ground tissue of specialized parenchyma
        
        air spaces where cells have been digested
      - Collenchyma
        
        ground tissue with thickened primary cell walls
        
        flexible strength
      - vascular tissue
        
        xylem and phloem
      - epidermis
        
        protecting internal tissues
    - - Lycophylls
        
        have microphylls
        
        single vascular trace
        
        mesophyll, epidermis, and stomata
      - Euphylls
        
        Monocots
        
        adaxial and abaxial epidermis
        
        covered by cuticle
        
        mesophyll w chloroplasts
        
        veins surrounded by bundle sheaths
        
        Eudicot
        
        Epidermis
        
        Mesophyll
        
        Spongy
        
        Gas exchange
        
        Palisade
        
        Photosynthesis
        
        Veins
        
        Bundle sheath cells
        
        xylem on top phloem on bottom
- - - - moves toward more negative potential
      - water potential
        
        measured in megapascals
        
        Y = Yp + Yn + Ym
    - - hypo to hypertonic
    - - moving from less to more negative water potentials
      - moves via osmosis from soil to root hairs
        
        eventually water moves to endodermis, being filtered through casparian strip
      - water is pulled up tracheary element with tension
  - - - water follows