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Concept Map By: Ari K, download, download-1, download-1, download-1,…

- - - - Primary: Sequence of amino acids (held by peptide bonds)
      - Secondary: Hydrogen bonding forms α-helices and β-pleated sheets
      - Tertiary: 3D folding due to R-group interactions
      - Quaternary: Multiple polypeptides (e.g., hemoglobin = 4 subunits)
  - - - Monomer: Amino acids (20 types)
      - Polymer: Polypeptides
      - Bond: Peptide bond (between carboxyl and amino groups)
      - Elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, (sometimes Sulfur)
  - - - Enzymes: Catalysts that lower activation energy (amylase, pepsin)
      - Structural: Keratin (hair), collagen (skin, bones), actin/myosin (muscle)
      - Transport: Hemoglobin (O₂ transport), membrane proteins
      - Signaling: Insulin, growth hormone
      - Defense: Antibodies (immunoglobulins)
      - Storage: Casein (milk protein), ovalbumin (egg white)
  - - - Hydrophobic/hydrophilic
      - Ionic bonds
      - Disulfide bridges (covalent bond between cysteines)
      - Hydrogen bonding
- - - - Starch: Plant energy storage (branched/unbranched α-glucose)
        
        Glycogen: Animal energy storage (highly branched)
        
        Cellulose: Plant cell walls (β-glucose, indigestible to humans)
        
        Chitin: Structural (exoskeletons, fungi cell walls; contains nitrogen)
- - - - Saturated: No double bonds, solid at room temp (butter)
        Unsaturated: One or more double bonds, liquid at room temp (olive oil)
    - - 4 fused carbon rings
        Includes cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen
    - - Waterproofing (leaves, feathers, ears)
    - - Amphipathic: Hydrophilic head + hydrophobic tail
        Form lipid bilayer of cell membranes
  - - - Long-term energy storage (more efficient than carbs)
      - Insulation & cushioning (blubber, fat pads)
      - Cell membrane structure (phospholipid bilayer)
      - Hormone signaling (steroid hormones)
      - Waterproofing (cuticle in plants)
- - - - Sugar: Deoxyribose
        
        Bases: A–T, C–G
        
        Structure: Double helix (antiparallel)
        
        Function: Genetic blueprint
    - - Sugar: Ribose
        
        Bases: A–U, C–G
        
        Structure: Single-stranded
        
        Types:
        
        mRNA: Carries code from DNA to ribosome
        
        tRNA: Transfers amino acids
        
        rRNA: Forms part of the ribosome
  - - - Genetic information storage (DNA)
      - Protein synthesis (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA)
      - Regulation of gene expression (miRNA, siRNA)
      - Inheritance (meiosis, reproduction)