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Chapter 40-41 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Macromolecules
        
        Proteins
        
        amino acids (20)
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        monossacharides
        
        starches
        
        Lipids
        
        fatty acids
        
        glycerol
        
        building blocks
      - Micromolecules
        
        vitamins
        
        water soluble
        
        fat soluble
        
        found in vegetables/ fruits
        
        minerals
        
        ions (salts)
        
        found in elements
        
        both activate enzymes
  - - - filter feeding
        
        strain small organisms or food particles from the surrounding medium
        
        ex: humpback whales
      - bulk feeding
        
        eat relatively large pieces of food
        
        ex: snakes
      - substrate feeding
        
        eat what they live on
        
        ex: caterpillars
      - fluid feeding
        
        suck nutrient rich fluid from a living host
        
        ex: mosquitos
      - act of eating or feeding
    - - the second stage of food processing
      - food is broken down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb
      - two types of digestion
        
        mechanical digestion
        
        chewing
        
        grinding
        
        salivary amylase breaks down carbs in mouth
        
        chemical digestion
        
        is necessary because the body can't directly absorb macromolecules directly
        
        digestive enzymes are released to break down food
        
        lipase
        
        breaks down lipids
        
        protease
        
        breakdown proteins
        
        most chemical digestion occurs in the small intestine
    - - third stage of food processing
      - cells absorb small molecules
        
        amino acids
        
        simple sugars
    - - Last stage of food processing
      - undigested material passes out of the digestive system
        
        elimination
        
        defecation
      - completes the process
  - - - pharynx
        
        throat region
        
        leads to esophagus or trachea
      - esophagus
        
        muscular tube that connects to stomach
        
        bolus of food pushes by peristalsis
        
        peristalsis: smooth muscle contraction that moves bolus through the esophagus
      - food processing begins
        
        triggered by saliva from salivary glands
        
        saliva: mucus component with large amounts of amylase
        
        tongue
        
        helps with bolus formation
    - - has two major roles of digestion
        
        storage
        
        process food into a liquid suspension
      - secretes gastric juices
        
        mixes w/ food through churning action
        
        called chyme
      - chemical digestion in the stomach:
        
        hydrochloric acid
        
        high pH to breakdown proteins and other materials, kill bacteria
        
        protease
        
        pepsin: protein digesting enzyme
        
        two types of gastric glands
        
        parietal cells: use ATP driven pump to expel hydrogen ions
        
        chief cells: release pepsin in the lumen in a inactive form called pepsinogen
    - - Small intestine
        
        alimentary canal's longest component
        
        duodenum: chyme from the stomach mixes w/ digestive juices from pancreas, liver, and gallbladder
        
        Most chemical digestion occurs here
      - pancreas: secrete bicarbonate stimulated by arrival of chyme in the small intestine
        
        bicarbonate neutralizes acidity of chyme, acts as buffer for chemical digestion in small intestine
        
        protease trypsin
        
        chymotrypsin
      - liver: secretes bile salts that form bile
        
        bile salts: fat digestion facilitated by bile salts, act as emulsifier that break down fat and lips globules
        
        concentrated in gallbladder
      - absorption in small intestine
        
        villi: lining in the small intestine
        
        microvilli: epithelial cells, help with absorption of nutrients
    - - Alimentary camal ends
        
        small intestine connects with/ large intestine at T-shape junction
      - colon
        
        leads to rectum & anus
        
        feces: wastes of the digestive system
      - cecum
        
        pouch that ferments ingested material
        
        in humans: has appendix
        
        reservoir for symbiotic microorganisms
      - rectum
        
        feces stored before elimination
        
        two sphincters
        
        rectum: inner and involuntary
        
        anus: outer and voluntary
  - - - carnivore
        
        Generally have large pointed incissors and canine, to rip or cut pieces of flesh. Jagged premolars and molars crush and shred food
      - herbivore
        
        have premolars and molars, for grinding plants, incisors and canines modifies for biting off pieces of vegetation.
        
        some herbivores don't have canines
      - omnivore
        
        have incisors, canines, premolars and molars
        
        eat plants and meat
    - - large expandable stomachs: most common in carnivores
      - herbivore and omnivore have longer alimentary canals relative to their body size
        
        plant matter is harder to digest because of cell walls
    - - coexistence of humans and intestinal bacteria
        
        microbiome: collection of microorganisms living in and on the body, along with their genetic material
      - adaptations in herbivores: herbivores don't produce enzymes, otherwise they host large populations of mutualistic bacteria and protist
  - - - endocrine system plays critical role
        
        releases hormones to ensure digestive secretions only happen when needed
    - - insulin: triggers uptake of glucose in blood into body cells, decreasing blood glucose concentration
      - glucagon: blood glucose drops, glucagon secretion promotes release of glucose in the blood from energy stores
        
        liver glycogen: increases blood glucose concentration
      - liver: key site action for insulin and glucagon
        
        insulin secretion promotes biosynthesis of glycogen from glucose that enters the liver in the hepatic portal vein
      - pancreas: produces insulin and glucagon
      - Diabetes Mellitus
        
        deficiency of insulin or decreased response to insulin in target tissues
        
        The level of glucose in the blood may exceed the capacity of the kidneys to reabsorb this nutrient
        
        Two types
        
        Type 1: insulin dependent diabetes
        
        autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys beta cells of the pancreas
        
        destroys ability to produce insulin
        
        Type 2: Diabetes
        
        Non-insulin dependent diabetes
        
        failure of target cells to respond normal to insulin
        
        excess body weight and lack of exercise increase risk
    - - Ghrelin: secreted by stomach wall, triggers feeling of hunger
      - Insulin: rise in blood sugar after a meal stimulates pancreas to secrete insulin
      - leptin: suppresses appetite
      - PYY: secreted by small intestine after meals, acts as appetite suppressant that counters appetite stimulant ghrelin
      - control satiety center: hungry or full feeling
- - - - biological structure
    - - biological function
    - - animals must exchange these with their environment, which can impose additional limitations on body plans
        
        nutrients
        
        waste products
        
        gases
      - respiratory, excretory, circulatory, digestive systems
    - - convergent evolution
        
        adapted to environment
      - why do some animals that are closely related have different morphologies?
        
        divergent evolution
        
        adapted differently to their environment
    - - digestive system
        
        food processing( ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)
      - circulatory system
        
        internal distribution of materials
      - respiratory system
        
        gas exchange (uptake of oxygen, disposal of carbon dioxide)
      - immune/lymphatic system
        
        body defense system (fighting infections and virally induced cancers)
      - reproductive system
        
        gamete production, promotion of fertilization, support of developing embryo
      - skeletal system
        
        body support, protection of internal organs movement
      - excretory system
        
        disposal of metabolic wastes, regulation of osmotic balance of blood
      - integumentary system
        
        protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration, thermoregulation
      - endocrine system
        
        coordination of body activities ( such as digestion and metabolism)
      - nervous system
        
        coordination of body activities, detection of stimuli and formulation of responses to them
      - muscular system
        
        locomotion and other movement
  - - - affects stimulus
        
        stimulus: anything you can sense
        
        control center: brain
        
        response
      - negative feedback
        
        reduce stimulus,
        
        maintain stable condition
        
        homeostasis
        
        thermoregulation
      - positive feedback
        
        amplifies stimulus
        
        goes away from homeostasis
        
        can be bad
        
        labor( contractions)
        
        blood clot
        
        breast feeding
        
        orgasm/ climax
      - regulator
        
        maintains homeostasis
        
        endotherm
      - conformer
        
        internal environment matches external
        
        ectotherm
  - - - Mammals
      - Birds
      - heat from within
      - hair, feathers, fat
    - - heat from environment, externally
      - reptiles, amphibians
    - - radiation
        
        sun
      - evaporation
        
        sweating
      - convection
        
        fluid transfers heat
      - conduction
        
        direct contact
    - - narrowing of blood vessels
      - cold temp- blood flow to vital organs
    - - widening of blood vessels
      - hot temp- blood flow to extremities
    - - opposite flowing stream, more efficient to transfer heat.
      - examples: bumblebee, tuna
  - - - temperature
        
        body temperature high
        
        high metabolism
      - body heat
        
        using ATP
        
        creates heat
        
        measure of energy
        
        calories
        
        jewels
      - smaller animals
        
        higher metabolic rate
      - larger animals
        
        slower metabolic rate
        
        lower bar st cellular level
      - bmr
        
        basal metabolic rate
        
        minimum metabolic rate of a non growing endothermic, that is at rest, empty stomach, no stress
        
        more muscle higher bmr
        
        how active the body cells are
        
        requires lots of energy to maintain bmr
      - smr
        
        standard metabolic rate
        
        minimum metabolic rate for ectotherm at rest
    - - temporary dormancy
    - - longer season dormancy
      - brown fat
        
        generate body heat
    - - summer dormancy