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Botany Section 2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - continuous with epidermis
      - filled with water
  - - - dumbbell shape
      - same direction as epidermal cells
    - - Kidney-shaped
      - Random orientation
  - - - Pumping K+ and Cl- across membrane
        
        Water follows via osmosis
        
        Guard cells "blow up" like a balloon allowing for the stomata pore to open
      - To close, the guard cells pump ions back across the membrane, "deflating" the guard cells
      - Cytoskeleton microfibrils radially oriented, aid with the form of the guard cells
    - - Needs ATP to pump ions across the membrane
      - Stomata close at night & under water stress
    - - Amount of water loss to carbon gain
      - Water stress in seed plants -> ABA hormone -> causes stomata to close
      - Angiosperms additionally respond to VPD (how dry the surrounding air is)
- - - - "new"
    - - "similar" - our ancestors had it
    - - "newer trait"
    - - "older trait"
    - - independent occurance
        
        uforbs and cacti both having squishy leaves
    - - 2 traits that look similar, but didn't evolve from the same thing
        
        wings v. flippers
  - - - :star:
  - - - large complex plants
      - specialized organ systems
  - - - cells can become any other type of cell
    - - Ground Maristem
        
        Most of the plant body
      - Procambium
        
        Will develop into vascular tissue
      - Protoderm
        
        Will become dermal tissue
- - - - synapomorphic
      - all have vascular tissue
    - - Cooksonia -> tracheids
        
        Annular thickening
      - Lycophytes
        
        First true forests
        
        Early vascular plants
  - - - Water content depends on the moisture in the environment
      - Stayed small to reduce demand for water
    - - earliest water conducting cells
      - no plasmodesmota
      - Apomorphic trait
        
        similar in function but different in origin
      - No lignin
    - - Thickened lignin walls
        
        As plants grew in height, the vascular tissue needed to thicken to increase turgor pressure
        
        Devonian period
      - die at maturity
      - Early Tracheids
        
        water transport only (no support)
        
        Eventually secondary wall thickening
        
        pit membranes
      - True Tracheids
        
        Water transport and support
        
        Lignified
        
        Tapered at ends & narrow
        
        evolved once
        
        End and lateral walls tend to have the same pattern
      - Pine Tracheids
        
        Torus-margo pit membrane
        
        move to prevent cavitation & air bubbles from spreading
        
        Dry and cold environmemt
      - Evolved into:
    - - Angiosperms
        
        Homogenous pit membrane
      - "Boba straw"
      - Wider and shorter than tracheids
      - Element differentiation
        
        Apical meristem
        
        Vacuolization
        
        Elongation
        
        Secondary cell wall
        
        Annular
        
        Helical
        
        Reticulate
        
        Porous
        
        Dead (hollow) at maturity
    - - Gymnosperm only have tracheids
      - Gymnosperm: softwood, less fiber
      - Angiosperms: hardwood, vessels permits more fiber
      - Angiosperms have both vessel elements and tracheids
      - More vessels = greater cavitation risk
  - - - Food conducting cells
        
        widespread in Bryophytes
      - Sieve cells and albuminous cells
        
        Transport of:
        
        Photosynthate
        
        Hormones
        
        Electric signals
        
        Always partners
      - Sieve tube element
        
        Sieve plate
        
        Area with many sieve pores
        
        Callose -> prevent viruses and other invasions from getting to the phloem
        
        Many sieve tube elements = sieve tube
        
        Live at maturity
        
        Compaion cells
        
        connected by Plasmodesmota
        
        came from same mother cell
        
        one pore in sieve tube area branched into many on companion cell
        
        Contents
        
        P-proteins
        
        Help plug pores in response to leakage
        
        Forisomes
        
        Legumes
        
        Plug pores
        
        Sieve Element palstids
        
        Mitochondria
        
        Very few
        
        Endoplasmic reticulum
        
        Lost ribosomes
    - - Nucleus is broken down
      - Callose formation
  - - - Root with pith
      - Stem without pith
    - - Root without pith
      - Stem with pith
    - - Protostele
        
        Earliest
      - Siphonostele
        
        pith appears
      - Eustele
        
        most complex
    - - based on xylem maturation
        
        Protoxylem
        
        1st to mature
        
        smaller in diameter
        
        Metaxylem
        
        Develops later
        
        Usually larger in diameter
      - Exarch
        
        Protoxylem outside metaxylem
        
        :star:
      - Endarch
        
        Protoxylem in middle
        
        :star:
      - Mesarch
        
        Protoxylem surrounded by metaxylem
        
        :star:
    - - Protostele
        
        ancestral type of vascular tissue
      - exarch
      - stele surrounded by ground tissue (cortex)
    - - Siphenostele - Xylem surrounded by phloem
      - Endarch
    - - Atactocele
        
        Numerous vascular bundles scattered throughout stem
      - No pith
      - Vascular bundles often surrounded by sclerenchyma = Bundle sheath
      - Air space to help with respiration
    - - Eustele
        
        Phloem outside xylem
        
        Bundles separated by parenchyma
      - Endarch
        
        Metaxylem outside of protoxylem
      - Vascular bundle supported by sclerenchyma, bundle cap fibers
  - - - increase in amount of water loss per carbon gain
      - High water demand
        
        Led to water transport system so that plants don't starve
    - - Growth in girth
      - Secondary xylem (wood)
      - secondary phloem (inner bark)
      - Ground tissue (rays)
    - - Fusiform initials
        
        Stem cells
        
        Xylem and phloem
        
        Fascicular cambium (faces)
      - Ray initials
        
        Stem cells
        
        Ray cells
        
        Interfascicular cambium (in between)
      - Periclinal division: more xylem and phloem (=)
      - Anticlinal division: wider circle of vascular cambium (II)
    - - Ring width is determined by season and environment
      - alternating between early wood (large elements) and late wood (small elements)
    - - storage
    - - water transport
    - - tracheids only
      - little room for fibers
      - Gymnosperms
    - - vessel elements allow for fibers
      - Angiosperms
    - - Phellem
      - Phellogen
      - Phelloderm
- - - - predate land plants
    - - no root cap
      - bifurcating
    - - Downward stems
  - - - derived from radicle
      - main root
    - - Adventitious roots
      - Seminal roots
  - - - Major area that fills the root
      - bound by endodermis and epidermis
      - Sometimes: hypodermis and exodermis
    - - Zone of differentiation
        
        fully mature cells
      - Zone of elongation
      - Zone of division
      - Lycophyte
      - Euphyllophyte
      - protecting underlying tissues + secrete mucilage
    - - Single celled
      - absorption of water and minerals via osmosis
      - delicate and short-lived
    - - Casparian strip
      - prevents apoplastic movement of water
        
        if water can freely move, so can other molecules
      - forces water to move through cell membrane to be filtered
    - - Pluripotent (can turn mitotic)
      - just inside the endodermis
      - initiation of lateral root development
    - - Behind the root cap
      - Quiescent center
        
        Rarely divides
        
        Maintains initial cells (the cells that divide)
  - - - Pith in center
    - - no pith
- - - - low capacity for water uptake
      - Low stomatal density
    - - Lycophytes
        
        Earliest evidence of true leaves
        
        Microphylls/ lycophylls
      - Euphyllophytes
        
        independent evolution
    - - Leaves had at least 5 independent origins
    - - Mitosis of a single cell
      - Microphyll
      - Frond
      - Euphylls
    - - Lycophyte leaves
      - Progressive elaboration of epidermal outgrowths (enation)
    - - Evolution of Euphylls (Gymnosperms, Angiosperms, and Ferns)
      - unequal branching (primary and side)
  - - - Specialized parychyma cells with chloroplast
    - - Parynchyma that contains air pockets
    - - Parynchyma with thickened primary cell walls
      - main function is flexible support
      - founding bundle sheath in some species
    - - Xylem
      - Phloem
    - - Often cutenized
      - Epidermal tissue and guard cells
  - - - Microphyll
        
        Single vascular trace along center of blade
        
        Mesophyll
        
        Epidermis
        
        Stomata
    - - Monocot Leaf
        
        Epidermis
        
        Adaxial epidermis (outer)
        
        Abaxial epidermis (towards stem)
        
        Covered by cuticle
        
        Stomata
        
        bulliform cells - for rolling and unrolling
        
        Mesophyll
        
        Veins - surrounded by bundle sheaths
      - Eudicot Leaf
        
        Epidermis
        
        Cuticle
        
        Upper and lower
        
        Mesophyll
        
        Palisade - photosynthesis
        
        Spongy - gas exchange
        
        Veins
        
        Xylem on top, phloem on bottom
- - - - kept tissues thin to be able to respirate
      - low ozone layer - sunburns
    - - changes in reproduction since water wasn't available to carry sperm to egg
      - 3-D growth instead of 2-D
    - - Macrofossils
        
        Liverwort
        
        Middle Devonian period
        
        Cooksonia sporophytes
        
        1st official macrofossils to show a land plant
        
        Mid-Late Silurian
        
        complex
      - Spores
        
        Cryptospores - no trilete mark
        
        Trilete marks
      - Vascular plants
        
        Specialized for water conduction
        
        Plants no longer restricted to bogs and damp areas
  - - - alternation of generation
      - Gametophyte
        
        multicellular
        
        forms gamete
        
        dominate in early land plants
      - Sporophyte
        
        diploid
        
        evolves dominance
    - - Photosynthesis and gas exchange
    - - water and food conducting cells
      - allows for plants to grow tall
    - - downward growing rhizomes
    - - Gymnosperm
        
        Naked seed
      - Angiosperm
        
        Hidden seed
        
        Evolved later than gymnosperm
    - - Specialized stem
      - parts of the plower thought to have evolved from leaves
- - - - potential for water to react or move
        
        hypotonic to hypertonic solutions
        
        Water Potential
        
        water moves from less negative water potentials to areas of more negative water potentials
        
        the highest water potential can go is 0.
        
        Water potential = Pressure potential + Osmotic potential + Matric potential
        
        Pressure Potential: turgor pressure
        
        Xylem cells negative pressure due to tension
        
        Osmotic Pressure
        
        Amount of movement that occurs relative to pure solvent is osmotic pressure
        
        Matric potential
        
        adhesion of water to nonidssolved structures (soil
    - - Follows relatively high to low moisture levels
      - from less negative to more negative water potential
      - When stomata open, water leaves, creating a domino effect of water potentials from xylem back to stomata
        
        This is what creates the negative water potential along the whole plant so that water can move through xylem
      - to replace the water lost, the root hairs get water via osmosis
        
        water passes through endodermis (filter)
        
        water pulled up stem under tension in an unbroken column (pressure element like a straw)
        
        water potential must be -0.2 more than gravity for water to be able to move
        
        cohesion of water molecules (polarity of water molecules) + adhesion along cell wall
  - - - sinks: actively growing areas and storage areas (fruit, apical meristem)
      - source cells include leaves
    - - decreases water potential of STE -> creates a water potential gradient between sieve tube elements and surrounding cells
        
        water enters sieve tube from xylem due to the water potential differential, creating turgor pressure
        
        xylem has a much higher water potential than phloem
        
        Photosynthate moves by bulk flow to nearest/ strongest sink and is unloaded
        
        Sucrose is stored as starch and used in metabolism
        
        As sucrose is moved into sinks, water follows
      - water moves into sieve tube via osmosis behind it