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Introduction - Coggle Diagram
Introduction
Organisational Structure
Dimensions for Understanding Organisation
- Goal-based
- Compliance-based
- Beneficiary-based
Example: Organisational Rewards to Achieve Compliance (Etzioni, 1975)
- Coercive
- Utilitarian
- Normative
- Shared interests & values
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Example: Beneficiaries
- Students
- Senior management
- Shareholders
- Public
- Coercieve compliance companies
Features of Organisation
- Division of labour
- Hierarchy structure
- Effort coordination
- Common goal
Division of Labour
- Allocation of tasks & responsibilities
- Based on competence & function
Hierarchy Structure
- Formal chain of command
- Ensure coordination & accountability
- Based on competence & expertise
Effort Coordination
- Tune activities to reach common goal
- Collaboration between multiple individuals to complete process
Common Goal
- Collective purpose
- All employees work to support ultimate goal
Organisational Structure
- Defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped, & coordinated
Elements of Organisational Structure
- Specialisation
- Departmentalisation
- Centralisation
- Formalisation
- Span of control
- Chain of command
- Boundary spanning
Specialisation
- How activities divided into jobs
Example: Production Line
- Every stage of work completed by diff employee
- Trained for competency in specific aspect of assemby
- Revolutionised to have smaller split of competencies
- Employees trained for part & come together at end
Departmentalisation
- How functions (roles & jobs) grouped together
Example: Group Functions
- Process
- Geography
- Product type
- Customer type
Process
- Employees in same department together
- Split based on department function to produce products in company
Geography
- Split based on physical location of employees
Product Type
- Employees in different departments together
- Split by a product being created in the company
Customer Type
- Employees in same department split
- Split within department based on target audience
Formalisation
- How many rules/regulations for employees & managers
Formal
- Official organisational structure
- Standardised rules & jobs
Informal
- Higher flexibility in channels of communication
- Fewer rules to govern behaviour
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Span of Control
- How many people sit under manager
Chain of Command
- Who each person/group reports to
Boundary Spanning
- If divisions siloed/interact
Organisational Structures
Flat Organisational Structure
- Wide span of control
- Few management levels
Tall Organisational Structure
- Narrow span of control
- Many management levels
- Centralisation & clear hierarchy
Alternative Organisational Structure
- Matrix
- Network
- Self-managing
- Virtual
Matrix Organisational Structure
- Employees report to functional & project managers
Network Structures
- Rely on partnerships & outsourcing
Self-Managing Models
- Leadership distributed among roles & teams
Virtual
- Departments across the world complete diff stages
- Come together to produce final product
Production Type & Organisation (Woodward, 1965)
- Small batch production
- Mass production
- Process production
Mass Production
- Large no. employees managed by first line supervisors
- Formal relationship between work groups & leader
- Unskilled worker type
- Clear definition of duties
- Low deregulation of authority
- Low use of participative management
- Rigid organisation structure
Process Production
- Small no. employees managed by first line supervisors
- Informal relationship between work groups & leader
- Skilled worker type
- Vague definition of duties
- High deregulation of authority
- High use of participative management
- Flexible organisation structure
Small Batch Production
- Small no. employees managed by first line supervisors
- Informal relationship between work groups & leader
- Skilled worker type
- Vague definition of duties
- High deregulation of authority
- High use of participative management
- Flexible organisation structure
Contingency Factors
- Organisation size
- Technology
- External influences/institutions
- Environmental uncertainty
- Leads to whole industry having person/situation fit
Environmental Uncertainty
- Environmental heterogeneity simple -> complex
- Environmental capacity abundant -> scarce
- Environmental volatility stable -> dynamic
Organisation Size
- Individuals vs groups
- In groups people act like themselves but w. additional factors
Example: External
- Customera
- Competitiors
- Labour market
- Regulatory agency
- Shareholder
- Financial market
- Taxation law
- Natural resources
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Traditional & New Structures
- Traditional structures too slow & inflexible
Traditional Structures
- Stable
- Info scarce
- Local
- Functional
- Role-orientated
- Hierarchical
- Individual orientated
- Large
New Structures
- Dynamic & evolving
- Info rich
- Global
- Customer-orientated
- Skills-orientated
- Lateral
- Team-orientated
- Small & medium
Organisational Culture
Culture
- Define individuals
- Usually hard to change
- Values, norms, beliefs, implicit assumptions, traditions
- Rites, ceremonies, stories, language, symbols
Models of Culture
- Model of culture (Schein)
- Four types (Harrison & Handy)
Model of Culture (Schein)
- Triangle of observability
- Artefacts
- Values
- Fundamental assumptions
Artefacts
- Tangible, identifiable elements of organisation
Values
- States values & rules of behaviour
Fundamental Assumptions
- Basic assumptions of behaviours
Four Types of Culture (Harrison & Handy)
- Increasing centralisation & formalisation
- Person
- Task
- Power
- Role
Person Culture
- Low formalisation
- Low centralisation
Features of Person Culture
- Teamwork emphasised
- Person-orientated
Task Culture
- High formalisation
- Low centralisation
Features of Task Culture
- Task-focused
- No single power source
Power Culture
- Low formalisation
- High centralisation
Features of Power Culture
- Autocratic leadership
- Authority respected
Role Culture
- High formalisation
- High centralisation
Features of Role Culture
- Job description important
- Formal rules & procedures
- Concentrated power
Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede, 1980)
- A: How society influences values of company
- M: Surveys from IBM staff measuring work gorals & related values across 40 large countries
- R: Differences vary across 4 dimensions
4 Dimensions
- Power distance
- Masculinity-feminity
- Individualism-collectivism
- Uncertainty avoidance
M-F
- Roles associated w. diff genders
Example: Low
- Sweden
- Denmark
- Thailand
- Yugoslavia
Example: High
- Japan
- Australia
- Venezuala
- Italy
Power Distance
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Example: Low
- Australia
- Israel
- Denmark
- Sweden
Example: High
- Philippines
- Mexico
- India
- Brazil
Occupational Psychology
Workplace Challenges
- Concerns of occupational psychologist
- Aims of occupational psychologist
Concerns of Occupational Psychologist
- Personnel selection, assessment, & training
- Employee motivation
- Support during organisational change
- Developing leadership
- Optimising function of work groups & teams
- Internal communication
Internal Communication
- Who responsible communicatng between company & its people
- Competence of building communication w. employees internally
Aims of Occupational Psychologist
- Increase efficiency & efficacy of organisation
- Improve job satisfaction amongst employees
History of Occupational Psychology
- Scientific management approach
- Human relations approach
- Contingency approach
Scientific Management
- Optimise efficiency of production process
- Role of influence of external power diff
- People expected to do what superiors tell them
- Focus on task at hand
Proponent (Taylor)
- Father of Scientific Management & Management Consulting
- Aim to optimise work done by labourers
- Focused on objective measures
Principles (Taylor)
- Scientific study of work
- Scientifically select, train, & develop each worker
- Implement detailed instruction & supervision of workers
- Divide work equally between managers & workers
- Managers = Mental labour (plan work)
- Workers = Manual labour (perform tasks)
Case: Evidence for Principles
Case: Hawthorne Effect
- A: Find how lighting affect worker productivity
- R: Diff levels illumination improved performance in all groups
- Performance slumped after study ended
Case: Hawthorne Effect Expanded
- Expanded to variety of factors affecting productivity
- Lighting
- Equipment
- Breaks
- Break rooms
Implication
- Not lighting that made effect but presence of psychologist
- Employees felt were given attenion by management & opinions valued by psychologist
- Shows presence of psychologists & psychological impact of another person
Case: Shovelling
- A: Find optimal weight to shovel
- M: Company provide optimal shovel size so workers don't use own
- R: Productivity increased 3-4x
Case: Pig Iron
- A: Convince one person to carry more iron in day
- M: Enforced work & rest periods
- R: Productivity increased 12-47 tons per day
Taylors Focus
- Steel workers
- Employed as 'gangs' who brought own equipment & own set of rules
- Focus on gang leader & factory manager relationship
- Incentives to enable standardisation & better management improved productivity
- List of factors that affect job effectiveness identified & studied
- Shift from unconscious motives to stages & equipment that will help in each stage to increased performance
Scientific Management Features
- Task-focused
- Productive
- Work a mechanical process
Human Relations
- Interpersonal relations & individual psych influence productivity
- Focus on humans & sociality
Human Relations Features
- Employee-focused
- Well-being of employee
- Work a social process
Contingency Approach
- Integrative approach of scientific management & human relations
- In cases work mechanical process w. need for stages & equipment
- Also social process w. peer relations
- Depending on nature of work & task at hand the approach shifts
- Need to consider specific circumstances
- No right way to structure management
- All organisations different
Proponent (Woodward)
- Technologies (production systems) determine differences
Post-Pandemic Challenges
Generation Split
- Split by years & major historical events
- Divided by experience of tech & major events
- Connected by progressing stages of loneliness
- Increase in social anxiety through years of opportunities, tests, & failures for social interaction skills taken away
Gen Boomer
- Defined by threat of atomic bomb
- Possibility of end of world
- Focused on work & future
- Rise of TV
- Focused on socialising at home vs outside
Gen Y
- 9/11
- Release of Facebook
- People stop socialising further face-to-face as had social media
Gen Z
- Covid
- Term 'social distancing' as measure while should have been 'physical distancing'
- Online environment of Teams
- Alternative measure to encourage social communication
Social Distance in Psych
- No. personal contacts in physical network
Implications
- More in-depth training
- To put phones away
- To turn up on time
- Social anxiety in everyday
- Avoidance of period in messages
- Avoidance of saying word 'hello'
Study: Flexible Work Arrangement (Chmiel, 2024)
- A: Level of satisfaction & wellbeing depending on office space arrangement
- R: Less office time correlate w. lower job satisfaction
- But surveys consistently declare that home work is preferable
Implication
- WFH declared better option but not in actual implementation
- Psychologists can understand difference in what is declared & what data says
Coursework
Part 2
- Communication tactics to change attitude & how people think
- Never about changing physical element
- Formatted however want
- Can be essay
- Can be titles & subtitles
Rationale
- Theories associated w.. attitude change
- Theories associated w. issue
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