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Life, Conservation, Correlation with the amount of productivity: amount…

- - - - Origin of Life starter pack:
        
        1) No free oxygen: prevents oxidization; chemically reducing atmosphere
        
        Allows for synthesis of molecules into monomers
        
        Monomer example: Amino acids, nucleotides, fatty acids, monosaccharides
        
        2) Source of energy for synthesis (volcanism, thunderstorms, lightning, UV radiation
        
        Because energy is needed for chemical reaction, including synthesis
        
        3) Chemical building blocks: water, ions, and many dissolved gases (in ocean)
        
        Chemical that allow for the synthesis towards organic macromolecules
        
        4) Lots of time
        
        Hadean era
        
        Hellish conditions, but hella nurturing. Organic chemicals liked this place. It allowed them to bang and a make new gangs
        
        Hot, many collisions with other Solar System bodies & high volcanism = lots of energy
        
        Reducing atmosphere: not much free oxygen
        
        Lots of gases: water vapor, nitrogen and oxides, CO2, H2S, ammonia, methane, hydrogen; the air was good
    - - Polymers: macromolecules
        
        Heat + monomers = polymers
        
        Heat gives energy: no need for enzymes to form macromolecules
    - - RNA
        
        allows for storage of genetic information in nucleotide sequence (chain of nucleotides, which are the building block of RNA)
        
        Allows inheritance
        
        Ribozymes
        
        Part of RNA
        
        make copies of RNA (if supplied with monomers, its food)
        
        Can catalyze protein formation (like an enzyme)
        
        Flexible
        
        Single stranded
        
        Can assume many shapes
    - - Prokaryotes ("descendants" of protocells)
        
        Autotrophes
        
        produce all their needed compounds from the molecules in their environment;
        
        Phototrophes
        
        Chemotrophes
        
        Inorganic sulfur compounds
        
        Sulfur-reducing bacteria
        
        Produce organic chemicals from CO2
        
        From Prokaryotes, eukaryotes are formed
        
        Since all eukaryotes have mitochondria (which were there before chloroplasts)
        
        Endosymbiont (within symbiosis) theory: teamwork is the dreamwork
        
        Two bacteria, one engulfs another, both live together and mutual benefit from the colocation (one protects, one feeds)
        
        and internal/engulfed bacteria, reproduced along with host (passed on with the host to next generations)
        
        Mitochondria is an engulfed heterotrophic, aerobic bacteria
        
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        Mutual benefit
        
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        Formation of nuclear envelop ---> nuclear membrane (membrane of nucleus) by infoldings of plasma membrane that make the endoplasmic reticulum
      - Found in stromatolites
        
        Rocklike structure composed of cyanobacteria and sediments
        
        Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic bacteria. 3.5 billion years old (life started before then)
        
        Photosynthesize = produce oxygen
        
        Ocean oxygen levels became saturated, then atmosphere started to accumulate oxygen
        
        OXYGEN REVOLUTION
        
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    - - Protocell: collection of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by membrane/membrane-like structure formed by phospholipids that keeps the internal chemistry of the protocell different from its environment
        
        3/7 properties of life
        
        Self-replication (some can reproduce)
        
        Homeostasis: keeping its internal chemistry
        
        Metabolism: transforms compounds into energy
        it eats
  - - - your grandaddy who made things possible
    - - Meaning they share a common ancestor
      - Algae (protists (eukaryotic and unicellular)) are producers in aquatic environements
      - Plants are producers in terrestrial environements
      - Bacteria are producers in both terrestrial and aquatic environments
        
        Cyanobacteria (called blue green algae BUT ARE NOT ALGAE) are photosynthetic bacteria
        
        Cyanobacteria trickster : not algae!!
      - Protists:
        
        Varying characteristics
        
        Mostly motile
        
        Aquatic
        
        Can be asexual or sexual
        
        Can be unicellular or multicellular
        
        Autotrophic, heterotrophic, or mixotrophic
        
        Algae
        
        Unicellular or multicellular
        
        Photosynthetic
        
        Make 30-50% atmospheric O2
        
        Freshwater or marine
        
        Phytoplankton
        
        Basis food chain in freshwater and marine environments
        
        Produce about 30% of world's photosynthesis
        
        Very abundant
        
        *zooplankton is non-photosynthetic
      - Plants
        
        Cell wall made out of cellulose
        
        Non-motile
        
        Eukaryote
        
        Multicellular
        
        Photosynthetic and most contain chlorophyll
        
        water + co2 = o2 and starch
        
        Mostly terrestrial
        
        Plants = basis of terrestrial food chains
        
        All organisms on land depend on plants directly or indirectly for food
        
        less GHG
        
        Moderate climate with shade
        
        Habitat for wildlife
        
        Ancestors (the gramps of all the variety of plants we see today)
        
        Algae
        
        Plants = algae that have adapted to life on land
        
        Similarities
        
        Cellulose in cell wall
        
        Photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll)
        
        Store starch
        
        Bryophytes (mosses) : the waxy ones
        
        Waxy cuticle : covers epidermis and prevents desiccation/waterproofs
        
        Also protects against UV rays
        
        Some can't cover themselves fully in cuticle because they rely on diffusion through their epidermis for water and nutrients
        
        Stomata : pores that facilitate for gas exchanges
        
        No true organs : no circulation system
        
        Must rely on diffusion to spread nutrients
        
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        Need water to transport his motile flagellated sperm to allow him to fertilize his beloved's eggs
        
        Ride to the bride
        
        Pteridophytes : the veiny ones
        
        Use vascular tissue to move water and nutrients
        
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        Roots
        
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        Stems
        
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        Leaves
        
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        Seedless vascular plants (ferns)
        
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        Still need wet environments because sperm is flagellated and needs water to transport them
        
        Gynosperm (conifers) : seedy guys
        
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        Some plants have rhizoids that look like roots
        
        Only for anchor
        
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        No tissue organization, generally one cell thick
        
        Restricted to wetness
        
        No tissue to transport water and nutrients
        
        Needs water for fertilization
        
        Algae the OG
  - - - Baceteria, Archeae, Eukarya
        
        FOCUS: ANIMALS
        
        Universal characteristics
        
        Eukaryotic cells with no cell wall
        
        Heterotrophs (consumers) that ingest food and use enzymes to break it down
        
        Digestion: breaking down edible organic material into glucose for cellular respiration for ATP
        
        Intracellular
        
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        Extracellular
        
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        Animal need:
        
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        Motile
        
        Sexual reproduction (with exceptions)
        
        Asexual reproduction in animals
        
        Regeneration
        
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        Budding
        
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        Parthenogenisis
        
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        Quick response to stimuli
        
        Multicellular with extracellular matrix to bind cells together to make them stronger and to support them)
        
        Extensive cell specialization
        
        Choanoflagellate colony: aquatic protist ancestor to animals (og)
        
        Phylogeny
        
        Choanoflagellates
        
        Multicellularity
        
        Porifera sponges
        
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        Adaptations to land
        
        Needs
        
        Reproduction method which does not desiccate the egg or the gametes
        
        Internal fertilization
        
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        External fertilization
        
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        Locomotion and support for land (endoskeleton or exoskeleton, which reduces water loss)
        
        Moist membrane that allows for gas exchanges (tracheal or lungs)
        
        Groups
        
        Amphibians
        
        1st terrestrial vertebrate
        
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        Reptiles
        
        Internal reproduction
        
        Amniotic egg
        
        Ectothermic (body temperature regulated from climate)
        
        Endoskeleton with scales for waterproofing
        
        Lungs
        
        Birds
        
        Endoskeleton
        
        Endothermic
        
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        Amniotic egg
        
        Internal fertlization
        
        Lungs
  - - - Characteristics
        
        Cell wall made out of peptidoglycan
        
        Cell wall is very strong
        
        Provide protection and support
        
        Some have capsule
        
        Protection against desiccation
        
        Adhesive nature
        
        can protect against white blood cells
        
        Resist from bursting and maintain shape
        
        Outside plasma membrane of prokaryotes
        
        Ribosome structure different from eukaryotes
        
        Prokaryote
        
        Circular DNA, single chromosome (simple genome)
        
        Unicellular
        
        Asexual reproduction
        
        Binary fission
        
        Replication of the circular DNA while cell expands/grows, the DNA moves to opposing ends, daughter cells split and form new identical cells
      - Many different types of metabolism
        
        Photoautotroph
        
        Energy of the sun to make organic compoudns
        
        Photoheterotroph
        
        sun for ATP, but consumes organic carbon molecules from environment
        
        Chemoautotroph
        
        Uses chemical bonds and CO2 to make organic compounds (glucose)
        
        Chemoheterotroph
        
        Consumes organic carbon molecules to turn them into inorganic
        
        Oxygen
        
        Obligate anaerobic
        
        Oxygen is lethal
        
        Facultative anaerobes
        
        Will use oxygen if present but can also grow by fermentation
        
        Obligate aerobes
        
        Oxygen is necessary
      - Genetic diversity mechanisms
        
        mutations
        
        Short generations times and large population = larger chance of mutations
        
        Horizontal gene transfer
        
        Transduction
        
        Virus takes some DNA and infects/gives it to another
        
        Transformation
        
        Decaying DNA of dead bacteria taken by live ones
        
        Conjugation
        
        Form sex pilus (bridge between two bacteria
        
        Not reproduction, just genetic exchange
        
        Most bacteria carry plasmids
        (circular DNA is in the nucleoid region)
        (DNA is in the cytoplasm, not surrounded by membrane)
        
        Small fragments of circular DNA that are not essential for survival under normal circumstances (unessential chromosomes)
        
        Extra pool of genes for a population
        
        Example of adaptation
        
        Endospores
        
        tough, dormant, non-reproductive structure
        
        When environment unfavorable (hot, dry, cold), cells form endospores
        
        Remain dormant until water is available
        
        Rehydrate & revive in more hospital conditions
      - Other roels
        
        Pathogens
        
        Disease
        
        Mutualistic symbiosis
        
        DIgest cellulose (sugars), produce vitamins, prevent pathogens, prevent infectons
        
        Nitrogen fixation
        
        Most nitrogen (N2) is unusable by plants
        
        Need bacteria to transform it, to fix it for them
        
        Free living N2 fixers (no symbiosis)
        
        Mutualistic symbiosis (Plant gives carbon, bacteria gives usable nitrogen)
        
        Cyanobacteria in aquatic environments
    - - Decomposing = main job
        
        Characteristics
        
        Cell wall made out of chitin (type of glucose)
        
        Chemoheterotrophs (food = organic molecules)
        
        Extracellular digestion by releasing enzymes into the environment and then absorbing the broken down food
      - Structure
        
        Hyphae: (not roots, not organ) filaments that offers a lot of surface area for water and nutrient absorption
        
        Mycelium: collection of hyphae
        
        Fruiting body (not all fungi produce): reproductive structure of fungi
        
        Spores: dispersion by spore production
      - Uses
        
        Bioremediation
        
        Decontaminate
        
        Diseases/plant parasite
        
        Parasites
        
        ex: Zombie ant
        
        Mutualistic symbosis
        
        Fungi provides nutrients, water, chemical protection against predation and microbes, and shelter
        Plant provides with organic carbon (food
        
        Such good relationship that most plant roots are associated with fungi
        
        Mechanism
        
        Mycorrhizae
        
        Solubilize nutrients (easier absorption), extensive soil access (more water and nutrients),
        
        Mother tree hypothesis
        
        Redistribution of nutrients in an ecosystem
        
        socialism
      - Habitat
        
        Everywhere but not as adaptable as bacteria
        
        still very diverse
    - - Recycle nutrients
      - Decomposition of organic material
  - - - Variation of solar energy due to Earth's movement in space
        
        Effects of solar energy variation
        
        Latitudinal variation
        
        Angle
        
        More perpendicular = more photons per surface = more light intensity = more heat
        
        Amount of atmosphere to traverse
        
        Traverse more atmosphere = photons less intense = less heat
        
        Equator is the most perpendicular and has the least amount of atmosphere to traverse = receives most sunlight
        
        Seasons
        
        Tilt of Earth affects the angle and amount of atmosphere to traverse
      - Partly influenced by latitudinal variation from solar energy
        
        Ocean currents
        
        Warmer waters near Equator
        
        Heat shared when it goes to higher latitudes
        
        Cooler water flows back closer to the Equator and warms back
        
        Air currents
        
        Warm air rises
        
        Cools down while in high altitude
        
        Cool, dry air redescends
        
        Picks moisture again in another cell and warms back
        
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        The warmer it is, the more the air is warm and the more moisture it will pick up, the more it will precipitate
        
        Affect precipitation, wind, and temperature
      - Relief
        
        On the windward side of the mountain, air containing moisture rises and cools down as it rises
        
        Because cold air is less able to hold moisture, precipitation on the windward side
        
        Air continues path on the leeward side, but no longer holds much moisture
        
        little precipitation
        
        Rain shadow: leeward side of mountain has significantly reduced precipitation compared to the windward side
    - - Wind
      - Precipitation
      - Temperature
      - Sunlight
    - - Affected by climate
        
        Average Precipitation and temperature and pattern
      - Large land area with characteristic groups adapted to the environment
      - Characterized by vegetation type (terrestrial) or physical environment (aquatic)
      - Terrestrial biomes
        
        Tropical rain forest
        
        A lot of precipitation and high temperatures
        
        High diversity and quick-growing, tall vegetation
        
        Vertically layered: diverse canopy, understory, & forest floor
        
        Conducive to rich life
        
        Temperate, deciduous (leaves falling) forest
        
        Adaptive vegetation for varying seasons (temperature and precipitation vary)
        
        Vertically layered: canopy, understory, & forest floor
        
        Lose leaves for stable temperature and moisture
        
        Boreal/taiga forest (largest biome on Earth because of latitude and surface area)
        
        Lower temperature, varying precipitation
        
        Dense canopy (for more sunlight = heat) and few plants in the understory (less sunlight = colder)
        
        Vegetation adapted for many seasons
        Keep their leaves
        
        Grasslands
        
        Highly seasonal precipitation and temperature
        
        Plants must be adapted to low moisture, fire resistance, and herbivore resistance
        
        Grass dominates
        
        Latitude is the best predictor of terrestrial biomes
        
        Desert
        
        Low precipitation & highly varying temperatures
        
        Plants are low and scattered to keep moisture (more space also is more root space = more water)
        
        Must tolerate heat, hold moisture & be resistant to herbivores
        
        Tundra
        
        Low temperature, high water availability
        
        Lower precipitations in the artic tundra, higher in the alpine tundra
        
        Plants adapted to low temperatures, high availability of water, shallow soils, and short growing seasons (so cold for most of the year)
        
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        Permafrost freezes soil
        
        Prevents water filtration and root development
        
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      - Aquatic biomes
        
        Freshwater
        
        Lots of light penetration
        
        Conducive to life for photosynthetic aquatic organisms
        
        Low salt concentration
        
        Marine
        
        Influencing factors
        
        Openness to water (pelagic or benthic)
        
        Light penetration
        
        Intermediate aquatic biomes
        
        Estuaries
        
        Constant change of salinity (mix saltwater and freshwater)
        
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        Nutrients from ocean = nutrients for producers
        
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        Lots of light in the photic zone
        
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        Tidal
        
        Lots of light
        
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        Lots of adapted animals to changing tide
        
        Nutrients renewed with every tide
        
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        Wetlands
        
        Variations in water level (from evaporation)
        
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        Closer to surface = more light penetration
        
        Lots of producers
        
        Ex: coral and algae symbiosis (essential nutrients & carbon)
      - How does the combination of abiotic and biotic factors affect the distribution of an organism
        
        Why is a given species absent from this area
        
        Does the dispersal of a species (movement of organism) affect its distribution (presence in many areas
        
        Yes
        
        Area is not accessible or species did not have the time to get there yet
        
        No
        
        Do biotic factors limit its movement
        
        Yes
        
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        No
        
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- - - - Universal traits
        
        Enclosed by membrane
        
        Have DNA
        
        Have cytoplasm
        
        Have organelles called ribosomes
        
        Harness materials & energy from the environment
      - Prokaryotic
        
        DNA in the cytoplasm, not in the nucleus
      - Eukaryotic
        
        DNA in the nucleus
        
        Organelles enclosed in membrane
      - Contains DNA
        
        DNA contains the genome
        
        Genome definition: collection of all the genes
        
        Genes are the unit of inheritance (what we inherit)
        
        Gene definition: specific instruction to make a protein that specifies a trait
        
        DNA contained in chromosome(s)
        
        Each gene is a specific segment on DNA on a specific place on a chromosome
        
        Genes can have different variations of themsevles called alleles
        
        One allele from each parent (if the organism is diploid)
        
        Combination of the alleles form a genotype
        
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        Difference in population's genes = genetic variability
        
        Genetic variability = essential for the mechanisms of microevolution:
        
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        New alleles created by mutations of existing gene
      - Most basic form of life
        
        Biological hierarchy
        
        Molecules: chemical structure made up of at least 2 atoms (not alive)
        
        Organelles: different structures with specialized function (not alive)
        
        Cells: collection of organelles and molecules
        
        Tissues: collection of specialized cells
        
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- - - - Try to release individuals that are going to increase genetic diversity, which reduces the effect of small populations
- - - - Selection for genetic diversity (for more flexibility against environmental changes)
    - - Receive gradual care and assistance until they are familiar with the environment to ensure their survival
    - - Teach the animals to be released the behaviours (non-instinct) to survive in their new environment
  - - - Transplant of mature plants to ensure better survivability
      - Fencing for less predation
      - Removal of competitors
      - Manipulation of abiotic factors (shade, water, nutrients)
      - Also planting in many carefully chosen sites
        
        More sites = more chance of conservation
        
        Less chance of one event ruining conservation
        
        Sites where pollinators can fertilize plants
        
        Reproduction
- - - - Species approach
        
        Focus on one species to, but this also protects the whole ecosystem (interactions)
        
        Flagship species
        
        Protection of big animals of interest
        
        Umbrella species
        
        Protection of this species protects others (because it is a keystone species)
      - Ecosystem approach
        
        Protect the presence of an ecosystem
        
        Together, having a diversity of ecosystems = more resilient biosphere
      - Hotspot approach
        
        Protect an area with high biodiversity and endemism (species only in that area)
        
        Maximize the biodiversity protection for the conservation effort
  - - - Larger area = more resources = more fulfillment of ecological niche
      - Compromise: dispersion
    - - Tool: habitat corridor
        
        Connection that unites two isolated reserves to form one large system
        
        Less genetic drift = more diverse gene pool = chances of a species' survivability
        
        Compromise
        
        Also allows for pests and pathogens to spread
        
        $
        
        Also increases predation risk
        
        Different species have different preferences for passages
- - - - Loss in genetic variability
        
        Causes
        
        Inbreeding
        
        Less different alleles are being passed on, which reduces the genetic diversity
        
        Lower genetic variability = lower flexibility to environmental changes = less species fitness = more chances of extinction
        
        Genetic drift
      - Environmental fluctuations
        
        Physical
        
        Changes in abiotic factors
        
        Natural catastrophe
        
        Biological
        
        More competition
        
        More predation
        
        More parasites and pathogens
      - Demographic fluctuations
        
        Random variation in birthrate and death rate
        
        Dispersion
        
        Less population density = less chance of reproduction = more chance for a smaller population
    - - Extinction vortex
        
        Representation of the many factors that can reduce a population's size
    - - One factor that affects it:
        
        Effective population size: number of individuals in a population that can mate
        
        Can be affected by
        
        Unequal sex ration
        
        Not all fertile individuals have the opportunity to reproduce