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Human Development - Coggle Diagram
Human Development
Theories of Development
Freud (Psychosexual Stages)
Erikson (Psychosocial Stages)
Behaviorism (Pavlov, Skinner)
Pavlov- Classical conditioning
Skinner - operant conditioning
Bandura (Social Learning)
Piaget (Cognitive Development)
Assimilation / Accommodation
Vygotsky (Sociocultural Theory)
Information Processing Theory
Evolutionary Theory
Eclectic Approach
Prenatal Development & Birth
Germinal Stage
Embryonic Stage
Fetal Stage
Teratogens
Prenatal Brain Development
APGAR Score
Birth Complications
Family Adjustment
Genetics & Heredity
DNA / Chromosomes
Genotype vs. Phenotype
Epigentics
Dominant & Recessive Genes
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Alleles
Dizygotic Twins
Monozygotic Twins
Genetic Counseling
Science of Human Development
Life-Span Perspective
Development is Multicontextual
The Social Context
Bronfenbreenner's ecological-systems approach
Microsystem
Ecosystem
Macrosystem
Mesosytem
Chronosystem
The Historical Context
Development is Multicultural
Social Constructions
Ethic and Racial Groups
Intersectionality
Development Multidisciplinary
Autism
Economics
Delevepement is Plastic
Nature Vs. Nurture
Development is Multidirectional
Sensitive Periods
Critical Periods
Continuity and Discontinuity
The First Two Years: Cognitive Development
The Eager Mind
Looking to learn
Gaze-Following
Core knowledge
Reconizing Faces
Listening to Learn
Universalists
Multilingual
How to Learn
Learning motor skills
Using 5 senses
Infant Memory
Implicit & Eplicit Memory
Piaget's Sensorimotor Intelligence
Stage 1 & 2 : Primary Circular Reactions
Stage of Reflexes
First acquired adaptions
Stage 3 & 4: Secondary Circular Reactions
Making interesting sights last
New adaptation & anticipation
Object Permanence
Stage 5 & 6: Tertiary Circular Reactions
New means through active experience
Mental combinations
Deffered imitation
Language
Child-Directed Speech
Babbling
Sign language
First words (holophrase)
Naming explosion
Grammar
Social Learning
Language Acquisition (LAD)
The First Two years: Psychosocial Development
Emotional Development
Early Emotions
Social Smile
Anger & stress
Fear
Separation anxiety
Strnger wariness
Toddler's Emotions
Temper Tantrums
Self-awarness
Temperament and Personality
"Biological-based"
Development of Social Bonds
Synchrony
Still-face technique
Both partners active
Attachment
Measuring
Operational definition
Strange situation
Signs of attachment
Contact-maintaining
Proximity-seeking
Types
Secure Attachment (Type B)
Insecure-avoidant Attachment (Type A)
Insecure-Resistant (Type C)
Disorganized Attachment (Type D)
Social Referencing
Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development
Freud theories: Oral & Anal stages
Oral Stage
Oral fixation
Anal Stage
Satisfaction of bowel movement
Erikson: Trust & Autonmy
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
Behaviorism
Social Learning
Proximal Parenting
Distal Parenting
Cognitive Theory
Wrorking Model
Evolutionary Theroy
Allocare
Emotions of survival
Caring for babies
Secure Attachment
Internaltion Baby care
Government-sponsored
France, Isreal, China, Chile, Australia and Germany
Early Childhood: Biosocial Development
Body Changes
Growth Patterns
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Nutrition
Obesity Among Children
Balanced Diet
Defiiciencies
Oral Health
Allergies
Brain Growth
Myelination
Corpus Callosum
Lateraliztion
Maturation of the Prefrontal Cortex
Impulsive or Stuck
Neurons Respond in two ways: on-off (activate-inhibit)
Impulse control
Perseverate
Stress and the Brain
Children when stressed they need routines, regular exercise, sleep and meals to help cope
Cortisol
Higher remember more details than with lower
The Brain shuts down to protect against stress overload
Reduced Memory
Advancing Motor Skills
Visualizing Development: Developing Motor Skills
For all skills, a combination of brain maturation and peer experience in needed
Gross Motor Skills
Gross motor skills improve markedly during early childhood
Mastered quickly, unlike social skills
Learning from Nature
An environment that encourages active play
Fine Motor Skills
Improve in early childhood
Inside the Brain: Connected Hemisphere
Right side of the brain
controls the body's left side
Dedicated to the emotional and creative impulses, including music, art and poetry
Left side of the brain
Controls the right side
analysis, most language and logic
Advoidable Injury
Prevention
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Preventing Injury from the Environment
Air pollution
Pesticides
Food
Child Maltreatment
"Batter Child"
Until about 1960, people thought child abuse was rare
90% of the perpetrators are rthe child's parents
Definations and Statistics
Subtstantiated Maltreatment
Annual rate is 2-5-year olds
Reported Maltreatment
since 1993, the number of children referred to authorities in the U.S has been 2.7 mill- 4.4 mill
Consequences of Maltreatment
Mistreated children regard people as hostile
Preventing Harm
primary prevent
Child abuse
Child Neglect
Early Childhood: Cognitive Development
Thinking
Executive functions
There foundations
Memory
Inhibition
Flexibility
Groundwork
Excutive functions are foundational
Executive skills are not deter at conception
Regular sleep, good nutrition, and exercise enhance executive function
Computer Learning
Can be a great learning tool
Children's Theories
Theory-Theory
Theory of Mind
Learning to Lie
Inside the brain: Role of Experience
Frontal cortex develops last in infant growth
Children who ar slow in Language development are also slow in theory of the mind
Social interactions with other children promote brain development, advancing both theory of mind and execution
Studies found that a child's ability to develop theories correlates with neurological maturation
Two Theories of Cognition
Piaget: Preoperational Thought
Symbolic thought
Animism
Centration
Egocentrism
Focus on Appearance
Static Reasoning
Conservation
Vygotsky: Social Learning
Present Challenges
Offer assistance (without taking over)
Add crucial info
Encourage Motivation
Scaffolding
Proximal development
Overimitation
Language is a Tool
Private speech
Social mediation
STEM Learning
Language Learning
Sensitive period
Vocal Explosion
Fast-Mapping
Logical extension
Code-Switching
Acquiring Grammar
Overregularization
Pragmatics
Laguage shift
Schooling
Child-centered
Teacher-directed
Montessori Schools
Reggio Emilia
Waldorf Schools
Interventions Programs
Head Start
Early Childhood: Psychosocial Development
Emotional Development
Maturation
Learning
Culture
Effortful control
Initiative Vs. Guilt
Protect optimism
Pride and Prejudice
In Many cultures, a young child's self-concept usually includes being around of all attribute
Intrinsic Motivation
Imagination
Imaginary friends
Extrinsic Motivation
Play
Five Stages
Solitary
Onlooker
Parallel
Associative
Cooperative
Social Play
Roughhousing
Rough-and-tumble
Sociodramatic Play
Explore and rehearse social roles
Explain their ideas and persuade playmates
Regulate emotions by pretending to be afraid, angry, brave and etc
Develop self-concept in a nonthreatening context
Screen Time
Challenges for Caregivers
Baumrind's Categories
Expressions of Warmth
Strategies for Discipline
Expectations for Maturity
Communications Patterns
Parenting Styles
Authoritative
Permissive
Authoritarian
Discipline
Physical Punishment
Paddling Schools
Psychological Control
Induction
Prosical & Antisocial Emotions
Empathy
Prosocial Behavior
Antisocial Behavior
Antipathy
Aggression
Instrumental Aggression
Reactive Aggression
Relational Agression
Bullying Aggression
Sex and Gender
Sex Differences
Gender Differences
Transgender
Theories
Psychoanalytic Theory
Behaviorism
Cognitive Theory
Sociocultural Theory
Evolutionary Theory
Middle Childhood: Psychosocial Development
Nature of Child
Industry and Inferiority
Parental Reactions
Self-Concept
Social Comparison
Culture & Self-Esteem
Resilience and Stress
Resilience
Dynamic
Positive adaption
Adversity must be significant
Cumulative Stress
Family as a buffer
Parents are crucial buffer between children and fear
Families During Middle Childhood
Shared and Nonshared Environments
Function & Structure
Family Structure
Family Function
Function Well for Children Provides:
Physical Necessities
Learning
Self-respect
Peer relationships
Harmony & Stability
Both Parents Together
Single Parent Family
Extended Family
Culture & Cohort
Step Parents
Harm From Instability
A study focused on low-income children found that instability in early and middle childhood increased the rate of internalizing and externalizing problems
Family Trouble
Wealth & Poverty
Family-stress model
Conflict
Other Children
The Culture of Children
Customs, rules and rituals are passed down to younger children from slightly older ones
Friendships
Popular & unpopular
Aggressive-rejected
Withdrawn-rejected
Bullying
Physical
Verbal
Relational
Cyber
Victims
Bully-victims
Bullies
There's a link between popularity and bullying
Boys are more of bullies than girls are
Causes and consequences of Bullying
If home is tragic, children don't know how to learn how to deal with their emotions or fustrations
By middle school bullying is not the outburst of a frustrated child but an attempt to gain status
Children's Morality
Moral Rules
Defend your friends
Don't tell adults about other children's misbehavior
Conform to peer standards of dress, talk & behavior
Empathy
Children become more socially perceptive and more able to learn about other people
Teaching Morality
Stage of Moral Thinking
Preconventional Moral Reasoning
Conventional Moral Reasoning
Postconventional Moral Reasoning
Adolescence: Biosocial Development
Puberty
Sequence
Puberty begins between ages 5-15
Biological growth ends about four years after the first signs appear
Girls: menarche
Boys: spermarhce
Unseen Beginnings
Pituitary gland
Adrenal glands
HPA (hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal) axis
Cortisol increases during puberty
Increased leptin (hormone needed for appetite, energy and pregnancy) affects body fat and puberty onset.
Sex Hormones
Gonads
HPG (hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad) axis
Testosterone
Estradiol
GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)
Body Rhythms
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
Day & Night
Circadian rhythm
Eveningness
School Schedules
Sleep deprivation and irregular sleep schedules increases insomnia, nightmares, mood disorders
Brain Growth
Prefrontal cortex matures steadily, advancing gradually as time goes on.
The limbic system is affected more by hormones (the HPG axis) than by time.
The limbic system is active during adolescence and the prefrontal cortex is not well equipped to regulate it.
Pubertal hormones target the amygdala directly, which is why the instinctual and emotional areas of the brain develop ahead of the reflective, analytic areas.
When stress, arousal, passion, sensory bombardment, drug intoxication, or deprivation is extreme, the adolescent brain ids flooded with impulses the overwhelm the cortex
When Puberty Begins
Pubertal hormones begin to accelerate sometime between ages 8-14, and visible signs of puberty appear between 9-15
Genes & Gender
The average pubescent girl is about two years ahead of the average boy in height.
Body Fat
Data suggests that over the past three centuries, puberty has begun at younger ages, Secular trend
Body fat is associated with earlier puberty
Poor eating habits can result in being overweight and earlier puberty.
Chemicals
It is definite that many chemicals, both natural and artificial, hormonal or not, affect puberty and fertility.
Studies found pesticides interacts with hormones the tigger puberty.
Several pesticides speed up puberty for girls and delays in for boys.
Stress
If the teen is in a stressful environment, puberty may occur earlier.
Stress increased sex hormones but not generalized rebellion
Stress & Puberty
Growth & Nutrition
Growth Spurt
Fingers and toes lengthen before hands and feet, hands and feet before arms and legs, arms and legs before torso
Sequence: Weight, Height, muscles
As growth spurt begins, children eat more and gain weight. When, where and how many they gain depends on heredity, hormones, diet and exercise.
By end of adolescence, average female body has twice as much body fat as the average male.
Height spurt follows the weight spurt.
Arm muscles develop in males, doubling in strength from 8-18.
Organ Growth
Both weight and height increase before muscles and internal organs.
Lungs triple in weight causing breathing deeply and slowly, the heart doubles in size as the heartbeat slows, decreasing the pulse while increasing blood pressure
The lymphoid system decreases in size, so teens are less susceptible to respiratory aliments
The skin, becomes oilier, sweatier, smellier and prone to acne
Hair changes, becoming coarser and darker
DIet Deficiencies
Body Image
Iron
All gender and age groups are compared, girls aged 12-18 have the highest rates of iron deficiency
Boys are also commonly iron-deficient, especially if they engage in physical activties
Calcium
Daily calcium intake for adolescents is 1,300 milligrams
Calcium consumption has declined in recent decades
Life-span Consequences
Vitamin deficiencies are not the most serious eating problems that are rising in adolescence, obesity is increasing.
Eating disorders increase dramatically at puberty.
Sexual Maturation
Primary sex characteristics
Primary sex organs dramatically increases in size and matures in function
Secondary sex characteristics
Body shape
Hair/Body Hair
Sexual Activity
Hormones trigger sexual dreams and desires, but he culture shapes that into enjoyable fantasies, shameful obsessions, frightening impulse, or human contact.
Emotions regarding sexual experiences are strongly influenced by social norms that incite what is expectation at what age.
In the U.S girls who have sex early in adolescence are likely to be depressed, but those who have sex as older adolescents tend to be happy.
Sexual Problems in Adolescence
Teen births have decreased
Use of protection has risen
The teen abortion rate is down
Sex Too Soon
Puberty increases sexual activity, drug use, and depression.
In the U.S restrictive laws regarding contraception and abortion, amid an increasingly sexualized culture, means more sexually active teens have unwanted births
If a teen has a baby, she has fewer helpers than was the case century ago.
STI increasing
Poverty and lack of education correlate with teen pregnancy
U.S rate of adolescent pregnancy is higher than most other affluent nations
Sexual Abuse
Child sexual abuse
Girls are more vulnerable
Perpetrators of abuse are often people know to the child
Sexually Transmitted Infection
In the U.S half of all STIs occur in people ages 15 to 25.
Rates high in ages 12-18
Vocational Identity
Adulthood: Cognitive Development
Adult Intelligelligence
Inborn IQ
Spearman's G
Charles Spearman called that lump "g" G for general intelligence
Spearmen thought g could be infer from measuring various abilities, such as vocabulary, memory and reasoning. This formed the basis for many IQ tests.
Searching for g
Reachers have searched for the genetic underpinnings of g.
Their hope to find one or two "smart genes" which is now recognized as foolish.
Beyond Inborn
Other researchers look beyond genes for the origins go g - Perhaps prenatal brain development, experiences in infancy, or physical health.
One scholar has suggested that the mitochondria are crucial.
Scholars suggests that no inborn g exists, and that differences among people in cognition are primary the results of the social context, nutrition, schooling, income, and so on.
Inside The Brain: Connections and Concepts
Cross-Sectional Vs. Longitudinal Research
Cross-Sequential Research
Seattle Longitudinal Study
In 1950s, K. Warner Schaie tested a cross-section of 500 adults, aged 20 to 50, on the five standard primary mental abilities that Sternberg identified as components of g:
Verbal meaning (vocabulary)
Spatial Orientation
Inductive reasoning
Number ability (math)
Word fluency (rapid verbal associations)
Seven years later Schaie retested his initial participants and also tested a new group of people who were the same age that his earlier sample had been.
Schaie retested his original participants and added a new group every seven years for his entire career.
Dimensions of Intelligence
Fluid & Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid intelligence
Enbales people to learn anything, including things that are unfamiliar and disconnected to what they already know
Crystallized Intelligence
The size of a person's vocabulary, their knowledge of science formulas, and their long-term memory for historical events.
Three Forms of Intelligence
Analytic Intelligence
Mental processes that foster academic proficiency by making efficient learning, remembering, and thinking possible
Creative Intelligence
Fexible and innovative, divergent rather than convergent, valuing the unexpected, imaginative and unusual rather than standard and conventional answers.
Practical Intelligence
This capacity includes an accurate grasp of the exceptions and needs of other people. Requires understanding and deploying water skills are needed to meet whatever challenges appear.
Cognitive Hazards
Genes & the brain
Viruses that infect the Brain
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) AKA mad cow disease
Syphilis
HIV
Trauma
Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Selective Cognition
Multitasking
Becomes harder with every passing decade.
Expert Cognition
Intuition
Automatic
Strategic
Flexible
Selective optimization with compensation
Late Adulthood: Cognitive Development
The brain during adulthood
Ongoing Development
New Neurons
new neurons in those areas may defend against cognitive loss.
Dendrites sprouting
orrelation is found between depression and aging
Brain shrinkage
Many neutrons die, and brain volume is reduced.
During every decade from 20 on, the volume of gray matter is smaller as the cortex thins white matter (mostly myelin)
Both of these neurological events cognitive loss in late adulthood.
Step-by-step processing
Input
Memory
Control Processes
Output
Neurocognitive disorders
The ageism of words
Mild cognitive impairment
Alzheimer's
Vascular Disease
Stroke (most common)
Frontotemporal Disease
Parts of the brain that regulate emotions and behaviors deteriorate.
Parkinson's disease
Lewy body disease
Reversible neurcognitive disorder?
Depression
Substance Abuse
Eating & sleeping
Polypharmacy
Misdiagnosis
Incidence of NCSs
According to DSM-5TR, major neurocognitive disorder occurs in around 1-2 percent of people at age 65, and 30 % of people by 85. Even at age 100, less than half of the centenarians have a major NCD.
Preventing Impairment
severe brain damage cannot be reversed, although the rate of decline and some of the symptoms can be treated.
New Cognitive Delvelopment
Erikson & Maslow
Erikson found that old age many people gained interest in the arts, in children, and in human experience as a whole.
Maslow maintained that older adults are more likely than younger people to reach what he originally thought was the highest stage of development.
Coping with stress
Some elderly, "cognitive reappraisal" occurs
Adults in their 80s experienced half as many stresses in their daily lives as adults in their 60s.
Aesthetic sense and creativity
Older Artists
Wisdom
Life review
Research Strategies
Scientific Method
Hypothesis
Testing
Conclusions
Report
Research Methods
Observational
Experiments
Surveys
Ethics in Research
informed consent
Confidentiality
The First Two Years: Biosocial Development
Body Changes
Body size
Percentile
Sleep
REM (rapid eye movement
Co-Sleeping
Bed sharing
Brain Development
Head-sparing
Experience-expectant growth
Experience-dependent growth
Neuroscience Vocab
Neurotransmitters
Myelin
Cortext
Prefrontal cortex
Limbic System
Amygdalal
Cortisol
Hippocampus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Amygdala
Harming Infant Body And Brain
Lack of stimulation
stress
Shaken Baby Syndrome
Perceiving and Moving
Sensation
Hearing
Seeing
Taste
Smelling
Touch and Pain
Gross Motor Skills
Fine Motor Skills
Surviving in Good Health
Nurttrition
Breast-Feeding
colostrum
Malnutrition
Sudden infant death syndrome
Immunization
Herd Immunity
Side effects
Middle Childhood: Biosocial Development
Healthy Time
Habits and Health
Middle school age is ideal for good health habits
Physical Activity
Protection from Injury
Need for movement
Parent-Child Interaction
Benefit (Children know their parents care) & Liability (Children are pressured to perform)
Motor Skills and Education
Gross Motor skills
Some U.S schools cut recess, sports and gym in order to focus on reading and math
Fine Motor Skills
Boys often ahead of girls in gross motor skills; Girls are more ahead in fine Motor skills than boys
Drawing and Drama
Health Challenges in Middle School
Childhood Obesity
Defined as a BMI above 95th percentile for children of a particular age
Health consequeouenes of childhood obesity are not apparent immediately, although they may begin the child on a path toward serious health problems later in life
Prevention is to educate parents on healthy balanced diet
Asthma
If continued into adulthood can be fatal
Most serious problem for a child is frequent absence from school
Impeding learning and friendships
Children in low income have twice as often as those with the highest SES, and those who 3 or more ACEs are one and half times as likely to have it
Brain Development
Brains and Motion
Body movement improves intellectual functioning and vice versa, via the effect on the brain
Postures and fine motor movements may affect learning
The hippocampus, crucial for memory, increases with activity
Movement improves mood, and mood affects thought
Paying Attention
Selective Attention
Reaction Time
Measuring the Mind
10 to 20 percent of children are thought to need specialized education because of something atypical in their brains
Aptitude, Achievement & IQ
Aptitude is distinct for achievement, which is mastered
For children, academic achievement is measured by comparing that the child with what is to be expected accomplishments at each grade
General Intelligence
Original IQ tests were developed by Alfred Binet, to sought a way to distinguish children who were unable to learn as fast as others
IQ tests produced a number that was based of mental age divided by the age of the participant taking the test. Then multiplied by 100
Plasticity & Intelligence
Many Intelligences
Linguistic
Logic-mathematical
Musical
Spatial
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalistic
Spiritual/existential
Scanning the Brain
Four generalities
Brain development reflects experiences
Dendrites from and Myelination Changes Throughout Life
Children with Disorders often have atypical brain patterns
Neurodiversity
Children with Distant Educational Needs
Developmental Psychopathology
Comorbid
Four general principles
Abnormality is normal
Disability changes year by year
Plasticity and compensation are widespread
Diagnosis
Multifinality
Equifinality
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Specific Learning Disorders
Dyslexia
Dyscalculia
Dysgraphia
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Asperger Syndrome
Special Education
Individual Education Plan (IEP)
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Response to Intervention
Middle Childhood: Cognitive Development
Thinking
Piaget on Middle Child
Concrete Operational Thought
Hierarchy of Categories
Classification
Seriation
Learning Math
Hands-on math
Manipulatives such as blocks, coins, or beans
Social interaction aids concrete thought
Vygotsky and Culture
Role of Instruction
Vygotsky welcomed direct instruction from teachers and mentors
Vygotsky would respect children with more social interactions within their zone of proximal development
Neuroscience
Piaget described universal changes; Vygotsky noted cultural impact
Developmentalists recognize a third approach: The analysis of the brain activation, made possible by innovations in neuroscience research, allows much more detailed data than was possible for Piaget or Vygotsky
Importance of Practice
Automatization
Rapid Automated Naming (RAN)
Siegler on Math
Robert Siegler haș taken an information-processing, considering neuroscience, as he described how children learn math
Compared the acquisition of knowledge to waves on an ocean beach when tide is rising
(Example in text) Many 10 year-olds are quite capable of adding and subtracting whole numbers but are woefully inadequate with fractions. Turns that distinct areas of the brain are used for who numbers and fractions
Children need to be explicitly taught, with time for practice
Inside the Brain: Coordination & Coordination and Capacity
Areas of the brain, called hubs are locations where massive axon meet
Hubs tend to be near the corpus callous, damage to them correlates with notable brain dysfunction
Although hubs are formed prenatally and strengthened lifelong, middle childhood is crucial
Knowledge Leads to Knowledge
Knowledge base
Better able to judge
Accuracy
What is worth remembering
What is not important
Control Processes
Metacognition
Metamemory
Language
Vocabulary
Choosing words for the context
As children master pragmatics, they become more adept to making friends
Mastery of pragmatics allows children to change styles of speech depending on their audience
Speaking Two Languages
English Language Learners (ELLs)
Immersion
Bilingual education
Poverty & Language
Studies find that SES affects cognitive development
Slow Language development is a prominent sign and pop major cause of low academic achievement in low-income children
Brain scans confirm that language proficiency is related to brain activity
Teaching & Learning
Curriculum
Hidden Curriculum
Teacher intersectionality
Teacher Expectations
International Teaching
Schooling in the U.S
National standards
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
Nation's Report Card
School Choices
Vouches
Charter Schools
Home-School
Private School
Adolescence: Cognitive Development
Self & Logic
Egocentrism
Adolescent Egocentrism
Leads adolescents to interpret everyone else's behavior as judgement.
Adolescents are egocentric, thoughts and actions may not be grounded in social reality
Rumination
Imaginary Audience
Fables
Personal Fable
Invincible Fable
Formal Operational Thought
Piaget's Experiments
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
Hypothetical Thought
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Modes of Thinking
Dual Processing
Discrepancy between the maturation of the limbic system and prefrontal cortex reflects dual processing
Intuition Verus Analysis
Intiuitive Thought
Analytic Thought
Theory of Mind
Reading the Emotion in Eye Test
Age & Two Processes
Gender Intensification
Increased myelination reduces reaction time. Adolescent intuitive thought can lead to action with lighting speed.
Age & Two Processes
Increased myelination reduces reaction time. Adolescent intuitive thought can lead to action with lighting speed.
Gender Intensification
Secondary Education
Definitions & Facts
Measuring Education
High-stakes tests
SAT
ACT
AP
IB
Problems with Tests
Exit tests forced teachers to prepare students to be good test takers who know facts, rather than teaching them to work with others, analyze problems, synthesize info, identify fake news and image new solutions
Performace Measures
GPA
New York Performance Standard Consortium
Engaged Students
Puberty & Academics
Puberty itself may cause disengagement.
Hormones of puberty push toward indolence from adult norms.
Learning is most likely when students trust and like their teachers.
Attitudes about Learning
Stereotype Threat
Growth Mindset
Fixed Minset
Adolescence: Psychosocial Development
Identity
Not Yet Achieved
Role Confusion
Foreclosure
Moratorium
Identity achievement
Negative Identity
Areas of Identify Formation
Religious Identity
No longer accept their childhood religion with out question.
Some resolve their religious identity crisis by becoming more devout.
Political Identity
Parent influence their children's political identity
Gender Identity
Gender refers to the cultural and social factors
Gender Binary
Transgender
Cisgender
Gender identity disorder
Gender dysphoria
Ethnic Identity
Related to religious and political identity
Close Relationships
Family
Family relationships affect identity, expectations and daily life.
Siblings are influential
Family Conflict
Disputes are common when biology, cognition, and culture all push for adolescents to be independent.
Consequently, each generation misjudges the other.
Closeness Within the Family
Aspects of parent-child relationships
Communication
Support
Connectedness
Control
Parental monitoring
If parents are cold and punitive, monitoring leads to deception and rebellion.
If mothers are too controlling, depression increases; if fathers are too controlling, drug addiction is more likely
Cultural Expectations
Familism
Peer Power
Choosing friends
Two concepts: selection and facilitation
Teens select friends with similar values and interests
Friends facilitate destructive or constructive behaviors
Peer Pressure
Romantic Partners
Sexual Orientation
Same-Sex Attraction
Learning about Sex
From Media
From Adults
From Peers
From Educators
Technology & Human Relationships
Sexual Abuse
Sexting
Cyberbullying
Sadness & Anger
Depression & Anxiety
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
Depression & Suicide
Parasuicide
Girls have higher rates parasuicide but boys have higher rates of completed suicide
Cluster Suicides
Delinquency & Defiance
Breaking Law
Both prevalence and incidence of criminal actions escalate in later years of adolescent. Called "well-known" age
Criminal Career
Adolescence-limited offenders
Life-course-persistent offenders
Inside The Brain: Impluses, Rewards and Reflection
The limbic system is activated by puberty, while the prefrontal cortex is "developmentally" constrained.
Two parts of the brain, the anterior insult and the ventral striatum are strongly connected in adolescence. Thus, adolescents are swayed by their intuition instead of by analysis, creating an impulse to act.
Studies confirmed that adolescents show "heightened activity in the striatum both when anticipating rewards and when receiving rewards"
Drug Abuse
Harm from Drugs
Psychoactive drugs excite the limbic system and disrupt the prefrontal cortex, sometimes increasing pleasure via neurotransmitters while reducing memory.
Psychoactive drugs are particularly attractive to teens.
Specific Drugs
Alcohol
Marijuana
Nicotine
Emerging Adulthood: Biosocial Development
Biological Universals
New stage
Emerging Adulthood
Appearance
Oily hair, pimpled faces and awkward limbs of adolescence are gone
Wrinkles and hair loss of middle adulthood have not yet appeared
Body shape is often slim. The gradual weight gain comes over the later decades, and many young adults exercise regularly.
Body Systems
Digestive, respiratory, circulatory, musculoskeletal, and sexual reproductive, functions optimally in emerging adulthood.
Emerging adults are at their peak of fertility and strength.
Strenghth gradually decreases after age 30, with some muscles weakening more quickly than others.
Health & Sickness
96% of 18 to 24 year olds rated their health as good, very good, or excellent.
The average 18 to 25 year old in the U.S sees a health professional once a year, that includes those for are pregnant or injured.
Organ reserve
Homeostasis
Is rapid in early adulthood, partly because of organ reserve
Allostasis
Allostatic load
Load & Balancing
Good's night sleep
Exercising
Coronary Artery Risk Development in Adulthood (CARDIA)
Balanced Eating
Diet is the third example off allostasis that protects later life
Cascade of homeostatic reactions make a person suddenly realize in the evening that they haven't eaten all day
Cascade includes hormones, stomach pains, low blood sugar and so on, all signals that food is needed.
Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa
Bulimia Nervosa
Binge Eating Disorder (BED)
Sexual Activity
Clashing Sex Drives
Hormones, impulses and fertility still peak in late adolescence and early adulthood
Increasing, society and emerging adults prefer births in the late 20s or early 30s.
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
Double Standard
Sexual double standard
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
HIV
HPV
Premarital Sex
Unexpected Pregnancy
Leads either to abortion or abortion or birth of an unwanted child
Taking Risks
Who are the Risk-Takers?
Those who are genetically impulsive and male and emerging adults are most likely to brave and foolish.
Benefits & Dangers
Drugs abuse
Drug Addiction
Adrenaline Junkie
Extreme sports
Emerging Adulthood: Cognitive Development
New Level of Thinking
Postformal Thought
Formal operational intelligence was Piaget's final stage, many cognitive psychologists find that post adolescent thinking is cut above that.
Rejecting Stereotypes
Postformal thought allows movement past simplistic ideas, shedding stereotypes
Postformal Mate Selection
In 2017 18 percent of all U.S newlyweds were from different racial or ethnical groups.
Emerging adults marry several years later than their parents did, often crossing ethnic or regliious lines.
Inside the Brain: Really a stage
Dialectical Thought
Thesis
Anithesis
Synthesis
Cognitive psychologists generally believe that humans do not begin thinking dialectically until they are capable of post formal thought.
Dynamic Systems
Teaching & Learning Dialecticallly
Jan Sinnott's "Journal of Adult Development"
Ethics & Religion
Measuring Morality
Defining Issues
Defining Issues Tests (DIT)
Considering Wisdom Traditions
DIT has been used to measure moral thought
Emotions & Morals
Jonathan Haidt studied morals in many religious and cultures.
Haidt found that people think their morality is rational, but also have deep emotional reactions that they do not recognize.
Haidt five moral foundations
Care for others: harms no one
Promote freedom; avoid oppression
Be fair; do not cheat
Seek purity; advoid contamination
Respect authority; do not break religious rules
Religion
Haidt noted that many people derive their moral precepts from their religious faith.
If religion is measured by attendance at worship services, then emerging adults are the least moral of any age group.
15 to 30 people less likely to attend religious services.
James Fowler developed a now-classic sequence of six stages of faith, building on the stages explained by Piaget and Kohlberg.
Stage 1: Intuitive-projective faith
Stage 2: Mythic-literal faith
Stage 3: Synthetic-conventional faith
Stage 4: Individual-reflective faith.
Stage 5: Conjunctive faith
Do Right Thing
Judgement-action gap
Cognitive Growth & Higher Education
Health & Wealth
Higher education improves health, wealth, and civic involvement in every nation.
Massification
Paying for college
Most nations invest massive public funds directly in colleges, which are free for qualified emerging adults.
Reasons to Avoid College
Some students have poor academic skills, no role models, immature emotion regulation, and work and family oblilations that do not allow time to study
College & Cognition
Before 2000
William Perry
Described students' thinking through nine levels of complexity over the four years that led to graduation.
Emerging Adulthood: Psychosocial Development
Identity
Moratorium
Is more mature way that emerging adults continue their identity quest.
Moratoria are socially acceptable ways to postpone commitment, avoiding a definitive, enduring identity.
Identity Continued
Much of what Erikson described for adolescence continues to develop in emerging adulthood, according to research in affluent nations.
A defining feature of emerging adulthood is openness to new ideas, as post formal thinking becomes possible.
Vocationally Identity
The changing economy makes this identity more appropriate in emerging adulthood than adolescence.
Intimacy Versus Isolation
Social Connections
COVID-19 & Isolation
Many psychologists are troubled by the COVID-19 pandemic because it broke social connections, causing education losses in schoolchildren, an increase number of drug deaths in adults, vulnerability in essential workers, and making some older adults "dazed and confused".
The Family
Linked lives
Historically, the links to a person's childhood family weakened at age 18, because young people establish their own.
Parents
Helicopter parents
Snowplow parents
Friendship
Self-Expansion
Friends are another important source of intimacy and support for emerging.
Unlike relatives, friends are selected for their ability to be loyal, trustworthy, supportive, and enjoyable.
Romantic Partners
Finding a Partner
Young adults meet each other at colleges, workplaces, or on dating apps.
Choice overload
Living Together
Cohabitation
Cohabitation was unusual 50 years ago.
The emotional and financial toll of cohabitation may fall more on women than on men.
Intimate Partner Violence
Nationwide survey of 14,155 men and women in the U.S found that 32% of women and 28% of men had experience physical violence from an partner.
Situational couple violence
Intimate Terrorism
Adulthood: Biosocial Development
Growing Older
Appearance
Skin
Wrinkles (collagen decrease)
Veins on legs and wrists become more prominent
toenails and fingernails become thicker
Hair
Gray hair
Thinner
Hair loss
Male pattern baldness
Body hair becomes becomes less dense over adulthood.
Shape
Fat accumulates on their limbs, stomach, and buttocks.
back muscles, connective tissue, and bones lose density, compressing the vertebrae.
Adults lose about and inch by age 65.
Muscles weaken and joints lose flexibility.
Inner Organs
Respiratory System
The Senes
Sences lose efficiency over the decades.
Nearsightedness increases in adolescence, stabilizes, and reverses In mid life, as the shape of the lens changes, from convex to concave.
Hearing also fades.
All other senses also become less acute over the years.
Sexual- Reproductive System
Sexual Pleasure
Avoiding Pregnancy
Seeking Pregnancy
Infertility
Primary
Secondary
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Menopause
Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)
Senescence
Health Hazards
Drug Use
Avoiding or seeking medicine
Opioids
Psychoactive Drugs
Coffee
Marijuana
Obesity
From ages 25 to 60, adults gain an average of about 20 pounds.
Mediterranean Diet
Bariatric Surgery
Measuring Health
Mortality
Average Life Expectancy
Average worldwide in 1950 47, 2020 72.
Morbidity
Gender paradox
Breast & Prostate Cancer
Disability
Physical disability are often measured by inability to perform the activities of day life (ADLs)
Cognitive disabilities occur when people cannot perform the instrumental activities of daily life.
Vitality
Cost-Benefit
Disability-adjusted life years
Adulthood: Psychosocial
Personality Development in Adulthood
Erikson's Theory
Three adult stages
Intimacy verus isolation
Begins in emerging adulthood. Continues throughout adulthood
Generativity versus stagnation
When adults seek to be productive in a caring way
Integrity verus despair
Drived to understöda the whole of one's life is especially evident in late adulthood.
Maslow's Theory of personality
Humanism
Basic human needs
Physiological
Safety
Love & Belonging
Esteem
Self-actualization
The big five
People have distinct clusters of characteristics, expressed in various ways over the decades of the life span
Openness: Imaginative, curious, artistic, creative, open to new experiences
Conscientiousness: organized, deliberate, conforming, self-disciplined
Extroversion: outgoing, assertive, active
Agreeableness: Kind, helpful, easygoing, generous
Neuroticism: anxious, moody, self-punishing, critical
Common Themes
Intimacy
Romantic Partners
Marriage
Cohabitation
LAT Couples
Beyond Partnerships
Social convoy
Fictive Kin
Generativity
Parenthood
Adoptive Parents
Reactive attachment disorder
Step parents
Foster Parents
Grandparents
Caregiving
Kinkeepers
Sandwich generation
Employment
Extrinsic rewards
Intrinct rewards
Late Adulthood: Biosocial Development
Prejudice & Predictions
Demography & Ageism
The demographic pyramid
one bar each age group, with the youngest at the bottom and the oldest at the top.
Demographic shift
Children decrease as elders increase.
Statistics that Frighten
U.S has 10 times as many people over 85 in 2020.
More people have Alzheimer's disease.
The proportion of U.S population over age 85 is four times, not ten times, higher than it was.
Age is the main factor of Alzheimer's, longer lives means more people at risk of neurocognitive disorders.
The Special Harm
Ageism is likely to become a self-fulfilling prophecy, a prediction that comes true because people believe it.
Three harmful consequences
If older people are treated as frail and confused, they lose independence
If norms are based on young adults, older adults are judge inferior
If older people themselves think that age makes them feeble, they neglect self-care, stop exercise, avoid interaction, or ignore early, treatable symptoms of disease.
Truth & Stereotype
Sleep
Inadequate sleep contributes to illness.
Many conditions that are prevalent in late adulthood - restless legs, muscle pain, breathing difficulties, frequent urination interfere with sleep.
Insomnia
Exercise
As people grow older, they need more exercise.
Talk & Prejudice
Elderspeak
Adjusting to Changes
Mcrosystem compensation: sex
Physiological sexual responses slow down with age. Death of a life partner is one reason, but also for those still partnered, intercouse is less often.
Macrosystem compensation: Driving
Beyond Personal choice
Driving is a source of pride and independence.
Older drivers have fewer accidents than 20-year olds.
Ecosystem compensation: The senses
Vision
Only 10 percent of people over age see without glasses.
Several eye conditions increase with age, specifically, cataracts, glaucoma, and macular degeneration.
Hearing
Everyone hears less well with age, beginning at age 20 or so.
of all people in the U.S over age 65, 36% report some trouble hearing, and 8% that they are virtually deaf.
compression of morbidity
Primary & Secondary aging
Theories of aging
Wear & Tear
The idea is that the body wears out after years
Eating less
Calorie restriction
Intermittent fasting
Generic
Max life span
Aging of the cells
Cellular aging
Late Adulthood: Psychosocial Development
Theories of late adulthood
Self theories
Personality & Aging
The big five personality traits shift slightly with age.
Integrity versus despair
Holding on to the self
Compulsive hoarding
Socioemotional selectivity theory
Positivity effect
Negativity bias
The wilder world
The demographic shift
Stratification theory
Notes that social forces position each person in the social stratum or level.
That creates disadvantages for some groups and advantages for others.
Gender stratification
Economic divergence
The gap between rich and poor has widened in the past decades.
Technology
Activities in late adulthood
Working
Paid work
Health and financial needs are the main reasons people keep working past older adults.
Most people older than 75 are not employed, the employment rate of older women was twice as high in2020 as it was in 2000.
Retirement
Volunteer work
Naturally occurring retirement community (NORCs)
Religious Involvement
Developmentalists explain the connect between religion and health in serveral ways.
Religious prohibitions encourage good habits
Faith communities promote caring social interaction
Beliefs provide meaning for life and death, thus reducing stress
Political Activity
Friends & Relatives
Dependent older adults
Activities of daily life
Instrumental activities of daily life (IADLs)
Frailty
A study also found that10 percent of those age 75-79 were frail, as 20% of those 80-84, and 35% of those age 85 and above.
Preventing Frailty
Prevention or reversal of frailty depends on the individual, the family, and the community, all of whom need to remember that disability at any age is dynamic, not static.
When people need care
Integrated care
Elder abuse
Long-term care
Residence
Nursing homes