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Alexander II (1855 - 1881), : - Coggle Diagram
Alexander II (1855 - 1881)
Political conditions -
The Emancipation of the Serfs 1861 - Emancipation Manifesto issued by Alexander allowed all peasants to buy land, legally free, marry who they choose, sue in court and vote. In return issued redemption payments for 49 annual payments to repay the government for buying landlords' property.
Introduction of the Zemstva in 1864 - Zemstva created a new level of government on a local level, elected through electoral colleges and made up of local men who understood the locality - mostly dominated by nobility during AII reign and only had limited powers. By 1870 the Zemstva was extended to towns through elected town councils.
'Liberal Reformer' - most liberal of the Tsars with his domestic policies, namely the Emancipation Manifesto and the Loris Melikov Constitution (advocated for elected nobility, zemstva members and town government would aid in creation of policy) but AII never had the chance to sign. His political liberalism was'nt seen as enough by the radical left wings and they attacked AII. The regime relied on the army and the secret police to keep a hold of their control - mainly through the arrests, execution or exiles of those who opposed the Tsar.
Authoritarian Government - AII was supported by the imperial council (made of nobility) and led a Tsarist autocracy within Russia. This power emphasized by his leadership over the Russian Orthodox church. AII made all decisions in Russia and attempted to act progressively while also remaining autocratic
Economic conditions
*Industrialization
was a need for industrialization within Russia as there was poor connections between areas, most places had no form of communication with each other which made trade hard. The farming equipment used were also largely ineffective and time consuming.
The Railway
building of the railway allowed greater access and communications between towns as well as faster industrial output which helped grow the economy, as the money made from output could be put back into growing the economy. Von Reutern began building the railway. Crops could be transferred further and faster which meant there would be less wasted rotten crops. The building of the railway enabled more jobs which helped partly to deal with the unemployment, also helped grow the emerging middle class as the project needed managers and owners. Went from 1,600 km in 1861 to 22,000 km in 1878.
Von Reutern - wanted to achieve economic growth - built the railway and paid government subsidies to railway entrepreneurs, reformed the treasury and the banking system, offered government support to cotton and mining industries to help grow other sectors and encouraged foreign investment and private credit institutions to try and stabilise the reubel.
Financial reforms - State bank set up in 1866 helped stabilise the reubel and improved state finances. While tax farming was abolished by Von Reutern, peasants still faced burdening taxes.
Problems - the majority of the population still worked in agriculture but was too poor to afford the modern tools necessary so used slower traditional methods which slowed down the efficiency of the industry, there was a lack of internal market for many goods due to the poor economic situations of the vast majority of the population - redemption payments significantly hindered economic growth as the peasant community could afford very little so could not stimulate the economy.
Social conditions -
Betrayal of the Tsar - many peasants who had previously seen the Tsar as the 'little father' felt betrayed by the crushing redemption payments. His more liberal reforms made AII extremely unpopular as they weren't seen as extreme enough for the radicals leading to left wing opposition but also as too far left to the autocrats, leading to mass opposition.
Emerging middle class - some peasants became wealthy after the emancipation (Kulaks) and they formed a middle class - this disrupted the traditional Russian social hierarchy of an autocratic state. There was also more skilled jobs like doctors and lawyers.
Censorship reform - initial press censorship relaxation (reducing publishing restrictions, permitting foreign publishing with gov approval, press could comment on the gov) but this led to a huge influx of critical writing about the Tsar leading to a period of retightening of control in 1870s.
Education reforms (1863-4) - universities allowed control over their staff, zemstva given control over schools instead of the church, schools open to all including lower class students and girls, women could attend school for nonvocational courses in 1870. These reforms allowed for a more skilled workforce meaning more variety of jobs available for serfs instead of labour.
Judicial reforms (1864) - laws introduced to give people more civil liberties (equal before the law, innocent until proven guilty, trail by jury and can hire a defense lawyer). Judges given extra training and pay _ but still chosen by the Tsar. Managed to reform the corrupt system to make it fairer.
Military reforms - following defeat at the Crimean war Russia had to reform and modernize its military in order to remain a global power - conscription compulsory from 21, length of service reduced from 25 to 15 years, less severe punishments, medical care established, literacy improved by military colleges - wanted to create a more professional and committed army who could continue to help the nation after leaving.
radical opposition - after AII's reforms in the 1860s critical ideas opposing him grew significantly, including multiple assassination attempts - causing him to revert back into a period of regression. Main radical groups were Young Russia, the Populists, Land and Liberty and the People's Will - who assassinated him in March 1881. Radical groups mainly failed at achieving more liberal reform under AII as their opposition led him to regress and his assassination meant the Loris Melikov constitution couldn't be signed and AIII was much more regressive.
Peasant revolt - following Emancipation manifesto a revolt broke out in Bezdna due to the serfs believing they were fully free, but then faced redemption payments. The revolt was put down by the military who open fired on the peasants.
Ethnic minorities - no systematic persecution of minorities and granted concessions to keep control of them. Antisemitism existed among the poor but allowed wealthier jews to move and escape it. Following the Polish revolt in 1863 he withdrew concessions and reduced jews abilities to participate in town government.
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