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1.1 Basis of Cells, 1.2 Exchange of Nutrients and Wastes, 1.3 Transport…

- - - - Rough ER
        
        Many Ribosomes + protein synthesis
      - Smooth ER
        
        No Ribosomes
- - - - Breaking big molecules into simpler ones
        e.g. enzymes
    - - Breaking down food into smaller pieces
        e.g. chewing
  - - - Carries nutrients away, maintains concentration gradient
- - - - Conserving = permable
      - Excreting = impermeable
- - - - Left shift; high affinity
        right shift; low affinity
- - - - Palisade layer where photosynthesis occurs
      - A lower spongy mesophyll layer, loose and air spaces between cells
        
        Allows for transportation of water and organic products
  - - - Daytime = CO2 in, O2 out
      - Nighttime = O2 in, CO2 out
- - - - 2. Stomata on bottom side - less evaporation here
        
        3. Each stomata has 2 guard cells open or close by changing shape
  - - - The extra volume cause pressure build up pushing water up the xylem
        
        Excess water in the mesophyll later evaporates becoming swollen and turgid cells; causing water to diffuse into them through osmosis
      - 3 mechcanisms combine to cause upward movement of water:
        
        Root Pressure
        
        Transpiration
        
        Cohesion of water molecules
    - - Water evaporates from the leaf, as each water molecule evaporates another is pulled up through the thin xylem column
        
        The pulling of water molecules put all the water in the xylem vessels under tension
        
        Stomata open in daylight = transpiration occurs, xylem narrows
        
        Stomata close at night = tension is released, xylem returns to normal
- - - - They can self-renewal
        AND
        have the ability to change into specialised cell types
- - - - multipotent stem cells;
        Once an infant is born, cells become so specialised that they can only differeniate into a limited number of cells.
- - - - CO2 + NADPH + ATP --> C6H12O6 + NADP^+ + ADP + P
      - Changes the ATP and NADPHs into glucose
    - - 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6+6O2
    - - H2O + NADP+ + ADP + P →(𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦) O2 + NADPH + ATP
      - E.g. Photon (energy) hit chlorophyll, energy transfers to electrons, protein takes energy stores in form of ATP and NADPHs. Water is released as byproduct.
  - - - Grana, is a stack of:
        
        Thylakoids, containing:
        
        Chlorophyll
- - - - When ATP loses a phosphate group (cata reaction), turns to ADP releasing energy to promote reactions (e.g. anabolic reactations)
  - - - Stage 1. Glycolysis
        
        In cytoplasm, glucose is broken down into 3 carbons (pyruvate).
        Uses 2 ATP, producing 4 ATP
        Net gain = 2 ATP + 2 NADH
        
        Stage 2. Forming Acetyl CoA
        
        2 pyruvate in mitochondria;
        2 coenzyme A and CO2 formed;
        2 NADH produced
        
        Stage 3. Krebs Cycle
        
        Using Acetyl CoA produced in Stage 2,
        2 ATP are formed along with NADH and FADH2
        
        1 more item...
      - e.g. up to Krebs Cycle
        Aerobic processes – requiring oxygen
        Occurs in the mitochondria
        Takes coenzyme A molecules to produce another 2 ATPs
        Also creates another 6 NADHs and 2 FADH2
        CO2 is a waste byproduct
    - - Occurs when oxygen levels are low
        Only way to form ATP is via glycolysis
        
        Forms a net gain of ~2ATP