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LESSON, MEMBERS: - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Galaxies are moving away from us in all directions.
      - Suggests that the universe is expanding, as if from a past explosive event.
    - - Discovered by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in the 1960s.
      - Low-level background radiation, interpreted as the afterglow of the Big Bang.
  - - - A Belgian priest and physicist.
      - Proposed the idea of a "primordial atom" or "cosmic egg" that exploded.
    - - Observed that galaxies are receding from each other.
      - Proved the universe is expanding.
  - - - Gravity
        
        Electromagnetism
        
        Strong nuclear force
        
        Weak nuclear force
      - Current physics can't yet explain this unified force.
  - - - Mixing and uniformity of energy.
      - Thermal equilibrium same temperature across regions.
  - - - Atoms
      - Stars
      - Galaxies
      - Eventually, planets and life
- - - - Possess partial positive and partial negative ends
        
        Caused by differences in electronegativity between bonded atoms or by asymmetric molecular structure
  - - - Electrons are shared equally between identical atoms
        
        Polar bonds may be present but cancel out due to symmetry in the molecule
  - - - A molecule is polar when electrons are shared unequally, leading to one side having a slight negative charge and the other a slight positive charge.
      - Molecular polarity is caused by the difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms leading to an uneven distribution of electron density and the molecular geometry, which determines whether these individual bond polarities cancel out. When atoms have significantly different electronegativities, they form polar bonds, creating a partial positive and a partial negative end to the molecule.
- - - - Produced the lightest elements: hydrogen, helium, and traces of lithium
  - - - Forms heavier elements such as carbon, oxygen, and iron
  - - - Produces the heaviest elements (beyond iron)
- - - - Positively charged particles (+1).
        
        Found inside the nucleus.
        
        Mass = 1 atomic mass unit
        
        Determines the atomic number (identity of element).
    - - Neutral particles (no charge).
        
        Found inside the nucleus.
        
        Mass 1.
        
        Contributes to isotopes of elements.
    - - Negatively charged particles (-1).
        
        Found in electron shells/orbitals around the nucleus.
        
        Mass is very small .
        
        Responsible for chemical bonding and reactions.
  - - - Dense central core of an atom.
        
        Contains protons and neutrons.
        
        Contains protons and neutrons.
        
        Accounts for almost all the mass of the atom.
    - - Number of protons in the nucleus.
        
        Determines the identity of the element (e.g., Hydrogen has Z = 1).
    - - Total number of protons + neutrons in an atom.
        
        Mass number = A = Z (protons) + N (neutrons)
    - - Atoms of the same element with same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
        
        example:
        
        Carbon-12 (6 protons, 6 neutrons)
        
        Carbon-14 (6 protons, 8 neutrons)
- - - - 2 - Linear
      - 3 -Trigonal planar
      - 4 -Tetrahedral
      - 5 -Trigonal bipyramidal
      - 6 - Octahedral
- - - - Chemical reaction of hydrogen with oxygen
      - Produces water and heat
      - Produces minimal nitrogen oxides
- - - - Initial step is the rarest and longest
      - Later steps are more rapid
- - - - Functions:
        
        Pheromones – Chemical signals triggering responses in other organisms
        
        Electron carriers in redox reactions
        
        Vitamins A (retinol), E, K
      - Classification:
        
        Non-saponifiable Lipids
        
        Do not form salts with NaOH
        
        Steroids–Contain steroid nucleus
        
        Terpenes – Built from repeating isoprene units
        
        Saponifiable Lipids (react with NaOH → form soap)
        
        Triacylglycerols – Triesters of glycerol + 3 fatty acids
        
        Phospholipids – One fatty acid replaced
      - General Traits
        
        Unique physical behaviors
        
        Non-polar
        
        Naturally occurring in plants and animals
    - - Types
        
        RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
        
        Molecular weight: 20,000–40,000 amu
        
        Found outside nucleus
        
        Different function from DNA
        
        Single-stranded
        
        DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
        
        Double-stranded
        
        Carries genetic info
        
        Found in nucleus
        
        Molecular weight: 6M–16M amu
      - Formation:
        
        Via condensation between OH of phosphoric acid and OH of sugar
      - Basic Unit: Nucleotide
        
        Nitrogenous base
        
        Five-carbon sugar
        
        Phosphate group
    - - Classification:
        
        Disaccharides
        
        Polysaccharides
        
        Long chains (10s to 1000s) of monosaccharides
        
        Can be homogenous or heterogeneous
        
        Examples: Cellulose, Starch
        
        Two monosaccharides
        
        Joined by glycosidic bond (via condensation)
        
        Simple Sugars
        
        Cannot be broken down further
        
        Monosaccharides
      - Core Structure
        
        Many hydroxyl (-OH) groups
        
        Contains ketone or aldehyde group
    - - Hemoglobin
        
        Enzyme
        
        Antibody
        
        Defends against pathogens
        
        Speeds up chemical reactions
        
        Transports oxygen in blood
    - - Quaternary Structure
        
        Multiple polypeptide chains joined together
      - Primary Structure
        
        Sequence of amino acids
      - Secondary Structure
        
        Helix
        
        pleated sheet
        
        Held by hydrogen bonds
- - - - Occurs after hydrogen burning is exhausted
      - Fusion of helium nuclei (alpha particles)
      - Produces mainly carbon and oxygen