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Human Anatomy^ - Coggle Diagram
Human Anatomy^
Anatomy of the heart
Cardiovascular system: Organs are heart, blood, blood vessels
Position of the heart
Inside the thorax. Behind the sternum (sternum consists of the base, the corpus and the xylephoid process). the top of heart is located at the joint of the base and the corpus of the sternum (also called the sternal angle).
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Right lower part is in the 5th intercostal space, parasternal (close to the sternum). The left lower part (the apex) is in the 5th intercostal space midclavicular (middle of the clavicle bone) on the left side.
Mediastinum is the cavity between the lungs (left and right pleural cavities). Consists of the superior and inferior mediastinum. At the top of this cavity there is the thoracic inlet which is this circle that consists of the top of the sternum the vertebrae and the first rib.
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Posterior mediastinum contains the aorta and the esophugus. In a tranversal section looking from above the aorta will be seen on the right side (is normally on the left side of the body).
Multiple organ systems come together in the mediastinum. Cardiovascular, nervous, digestive and lymphoid.
Superior mediastinum
All the nerves pass through the superior mediastinum. Important ones are Vagal, left recurrent laryngeal nerve, phrenic nerves, sympathetic trunk
Phrenic nerves are two nerves that comes from the cervical plexus (network of nerves in the neck) they branch to the diaphragm and control breathing. One of them moves along the superior vena cava and the front of the pleural cavity.
Left recurrent laryngeal nerve is the branch of the vagal nerve that curls around the aortic arch on the left side and it goes back up to the larynx (voice box)
Sympathetic trunk is a long chain of sympathetic nerve bundles (pearls on a string) linked together by nerve fibers. It runs along both sides of the vertebrae. It is part of the autonomic nervous system.
Thoracic duct is a major lymphative vessel that is also present in the superior mediastinum. It sits at the junction of the brachycephalic vein (cephalic vein(from brain) + brachial vein (from the arm)). It collects fat from the digestive system and brings it up to the left side of the thorax.
Inferior mediastinum
Anterior mediastinum
Contains the thoracic arteries and veins and from thoracic arteries and veins branch out the intercostal arteries.
Posterior mediastinum
Contains the esophagus , the thoracic duct, vagal nerve, the sympathetic trunk.
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Planes: Transversal/Cross section is cut horizontally so you see a top and a bottom. Sagittal-section is cut vertically and you have a right and left. Coronal section is a vertical cut that divides the body into an anterior and posterior side. Anterior side is the front side. Dorsal/posterior side is the back side. Caudal is the area towards the feet. Lateral is away from the midline of the body and medial is close to the midline
Heart development
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Cyanosis in new borns is the shortage of oxygenated blood in the circulation which causes a bluish color and clubbing of fingertips
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in a 20 day old embryo the heart starts off as a cardiac crescent then turns to two cardiac tubes that fuse together to form a primitive heart tube inside a pericardial cavity. Then the looping of the primitive heart tube occurs to form the four chambers. initially the primitive ventricles are above the primordial atrium but it switches as the ventricles grow bigger
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Dextracardia is when the heart develops on the right side instead of the left side. this usually doesn't result in a viable baby because there is something wrong in the genetic programming and so other things go wrong as well during development. But you can be born with a normal heart that is on the right side. Then all your organs are mirrored
Initially, the blood flows freely from the right atrium to the left atrium as the atrial septum is developing. The first septum (septum primum) develops and then at the bottom forms the foramen primum (a hole for the blood to still pass through the atria). As the foramen shrinks, through the developing septum holes appear at the top of the septum forming foramen secundum. As this one gets closed off by the 2nd developing septum (septum secundum) a third hole develops called the foramen ovale (oval-shaped). This foreman ovale will be sealed off after birth as a result of increased pressure exerted by the blood in the left atrium coming from the now functioning lungs. What is then left is a dent in the septum where the foreman ovale used to be
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Congenital heart defects
Patent truncus arterioses is the underdevelopment of the septum that seperates the aorta from the pulmonary trunk
Patent ductus arteriosus is the remaining of the connection between the pulmonary trunk and the descending aorta even after birth. This means more blood is oing to the lungs causing pulmonary hypertension
Tetrology of fallot is a culmination of 4 congenital heart defects. 1 pulmonary stenosis which is the narrowing of the pulmonary trunk. 2 ventricular septal defect (VSD) which means the ventricular septum doesnt fully develops letting blood mix between ventricles. 3 overriding aorta. The aorta takes blood from the right ventricle as well. 4 Enlarged right ventricle because it has to work harder to provide the aorta.
Umbilical veins are the ones coming from the placenta bringing oxygenated blood. vitalline veins bring deoxygenated blood from embryo to the placenta. Cardinal veins bring deoxgenated blood from the embryos body to the embryonic heart
All the veins come into the heart in this pre atrial channel called sinus venosus. this will be remodeled as the heart develops and all the embryonic veins start taking the shape of the normal human vascular system
Ductus venosus is a connection of umbilical vein in the embryonic liver that bypasses th blood from the liver to wards the heart since the blood doesnt need to go to the liver its already detoxified by mothers liver.
Veins bring blood to he heart and arteries away from the heart. Thats why the umbelical vein is called a vein because it brings oxgenated blood to the fetus heart
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Changes after birth: 1 Umbilical vein will become round ligament of the liver. 2 Ductus venosus turns to the ligament venosam.3 Ductus arteriosus turns into the ligament of arteriosum. 4 Foramen ovale turns into the oval fossa. Umbelical arteries turn into medial umbelical ligaments
Smooth part of the right atrium comes from the sinous venosus. trebaculated part of the right atrium comes from the primitive atrium. Smooth part of the left atrium comes from the incorporation of te pulonary veins into the atrial wall. Trebaculated part of the left atrium comes from the primitive atrium
Physiology of the heart
Absolute refractory period: No stimulus can excite the cardiac cell, Relative refractory period: CArdiac cell can be excited with a stronger than normal stimulus and Supranormal refractory period: A shorter than normal stimulus can excite the cardiac cell
Heart rate is determined by the resting membrane potential of the SA node and the velocity of depolarization
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In disease
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Restrictive lung disease is reduced amount of lung tissue for diffusion of oxygen. examples are pulmonary fibrosis(too much connective tissue in lungs), lung cancer,collapsed lung, weakess of respiratory muscles, deformation of chest wall
using spirometry (volume), pneumotachography (flow measurment) and a peak flow meter the amout of air the lungs can move during inhalation and exhalation can be determined. Tiffeneu index, peak flow and flow-volume curve are important parameters for that
Tiffeneau index = FVC1/ FVC. Where FVC1 is the forced vital capacity in one second, which means how much air you can expire in one second. FVC is the total amount of air you can exhale after full inhalation. So this ratio tells you the percentage of air in your lungs you can expire in one second. Normally about 80%
In an obstructive lung disease FV1 decreases relative to FVC so the ratio would be smaller than normal. In restrictive lung disease FV1 increases relative to FVC so the ratio would be higher than normal
Ficks law of diffusion: VO2 depends on the exchange area, solubility of the gas, diffusion coefficiency(temperature, viscosity,particle size), pressure differences, diffusion distance
In the lungs a reduced O2 concentration causes vasoconstriction so that increased concentration of red blood cells pass through functional alveoli
Exercise causes the most increase in blood flow in the muscles and then the heart. The blood flow to the brain remains the same, while blood flow to the kidneys reduces.
Parasympathetic nervous system uses acetylcholine and muscurinic receptors to change heart rate while the sympathetic system uses norepinephrine and beta receptors
A donor heart beats faster because there is no vagus nerve connection and thus parasympathetic activity to reduce the rate
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Excitation-contraction coupling: Excitation--> calcium entry-->calcium induced calcium release by the SR-->Contraction-->Relaxation
L-type voltage gateg calcium channels open from an action potential. Allow calcium in. Calcium binds to the ryanodine receptors on the SR and this causes more calcium release by SR. Calcium binds to troponin C this changes tropomyosin conformation so the actin is exposes to myosin head.
Lung compliance is a measure of streachability its depended on amount of connective tissue and surfactant. Lung compliance is equal to change in lung volume over change in transpulmonary pressure
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Erythropeitin is a hormone produced by the kidneys as a result of hypoxia that stimulates production erythrocytes
Oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve: The higher the partial pressure of oxygen the more saturated the hemoglobin
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Bohr and haldane effect: Bohr effect is that when CO2 concentration increases or ph decreases (CO2/H+) hemoglobins affinity of O2 decreases. This promotes O2 unloading in metabolic active tissues. Haldane effect is O2 binding to hemoglobin causes hemoglobin to release CO2 and H+
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Anatomy Respiration
Respiratory system is divided into upper (above the larynx) and lower respiratory systems (below the larynx)
Throat is called the pharynx it goes from the end of the nasal cavity up till the larynx. Divided into sections: Nasopharynx, Oropharynx(throat part), Laryngopharynx(windpipe)
nasopharynx has the adenoid/pharyngeal tonsil and the opening to the left and right auditory tubes(eustatian tubes)
The respiratory mucosa consists of an epithelial layer, an areolar layer called the lamina propria
The nasal cavity has nasal choncae. The superior, inferior and middle. It is there to heat and moisturize the air and trap the pathogens in the air.
Internal nose cavity has an opening that is called the internal nares. All the way at back of the internal nasal cavity is the pharyngeal tonsil(also used for taking samples).
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We have a hard and a soft palate. The soft palate closes off the nasal cavity while eating. It lifts up and blocks the nasal cavity when producing oral sounds and stays down when producing nasal sounds
Cleft palate is when the soft palate is not properly developed and so the nasal cavity and the mouth are unnaturally connected. This causes problems with drinking/eating and speaking.
Waldeyers ring is this incomplete ring of lymphoid tissue that has a function in immune system.It consists of the pharyngeal tosnsil/adenoid, palatine tonsilo, lingual tonsil(tongue), tonsila tubaria
Larynx is a group of cartilages and they for the entrance to the trachia. It also contains the glottis(voice box). Three main non-connecting cartilages in the larynx are the thyroid artilage, circoid crtilage,the epiglottis
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Hyoid bone is a u shaped bone that is attaches to the lower jaw with muscles and the whole larynx apparatus. Its an anchor for the tongue and it can move and helps with speech
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Extrinsic lyrgeal muscles move the larynx as a while the intrinsic muscles move parts of the laynx relative to others to produce sound
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arytenoid cartilages are moving cartilages that are attached to the vocal chords and their movement moves the vocal chords
The esophugus expands by pushing against the smooth muscle side of the trachea(cartilege of trachea is shaped like a u so there is no cartilege at the back) so when you swallow something without chewing properly you might feel it against your trachea
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Carina is the point in the trachea where it splits the trachea (bifurcation) into two parts left and right. The right one isbigger and wider than the left so anything that accidentally ends up in the trachea will most likely end up there
Parietal part of the membrane is facing the outside while the viceral part of the membrane is facing the organ
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Between the pleura there is a serous membrane filled with fluid to reduce friction as the lungs move. when injurred the seurous membrane can be filled up with blood and collapse the lung
The lungs dont expand to the maximum each time you breath. The pleural cavity has three parts. where it can expand into: The dome of the pleura, costomediastinal recess and costodiaphragmatic recess
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For exhalation the muscles used are the internal costal muscles that depress the ribs and the abdominal muscles that force the diaphragm up and compress the abdomen
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Anatomy Urinary system
kidneys are located between T12-L3.left kidney is higher than the right one because on the right side the liver is pushing the right kidney down.
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Renal facia is connective tissue around the perinephric fat, fibrous capsule and kidneys
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nephrotosis (floating kidney) is a condition where the nephronic fat is severly reduced and causes the kidneys to move around in the thorax. This can cause discomfort
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Renal pelvis collects urine from its branches inside the kidney called the calices. there are three major calices and tose three have a few minor calices
Renal medulla is this tissue connected to the calyx and consists of renal pyramids. All these renal pyramids enter the calices at renal papilla
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The bladder has an apex at the anterior side that is attached to the abdomen through the median umbilical ligament
trigone is the floor of the bladder. the triangle of the bladder consist of the two ureters enterling the bladder and urethra exiting the bladder
The connection of the ureters to the bladder has a valve like structure which blocks urine from going back to the ureters when the bladder is filled up
external sphincter aloows ypu to control the release of the urine to the urethra. The internal sphincter is closed until the bladder is full. when the bladder is full it relaxes the internal sphincter so its involuntary
male urethra has a prostatic part and a perinal membrane part and a spongy part (corpus spongiosum) which is the longest.
Development
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Birth defects
Pelvic kidney is when a kidney has not ascended properly during development and stayed in the pelvic area. It can have no complications
Horseshoe kidney is the fusing of two kidneys into one horseshoe kidney. It is stuck in the pelvic area and it can also be normal.
Ectopic Ureter is when in females two ureter buds develop from the mesonephric duct instead of just one. This extra ureter could end up among others in the vagina and leak urine there .
Allantois connects the cloaca to the umbilicus. Allantois will turn into the medial ligament after birth. Urorectal septum will seperate the cloaca into bladder and the rectum.
urogenital sinus develops into the urethra in females.Mullerian duct develops into vagina and the uterus
Physiology of kidneys
Regulate the release of two hormones Erythropoietin and Renin. Erythropoitin for red blood cell synthesis and renin for water retention
kidney is a colloection of nephrons. These nephrons have an entry point for the blood, a series of tubules and a collecting duct that empties into a minor calyx
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In disease
symptooms of kidney diseas: Swelling of legs/ankles/face/hands. Change in urination volume and appearance. Fatigue, shortness of breath. Nausea/vomiting. Skin rash/itching
Three basic renal processes that lead to formation of urine: 1.Glomerular filtration
2.Tubular secretion.
3.Tubular reabsorption
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Cotransporters in tubules use the sodium concentration gradient, where sodium concentration is always higher outside of cells than inside, to reabsorb other substances
Aldosterone helps synthesis of sodium transporting channels for the regulation of plasma sodium concentration
The liver produces angiotensinogen and the kidneys produce Renin. Together they make Angiotensin 1. Angiotensin ! is converted to Angiotensin 2 by ACE. Angiotensis 2 is used to vasoconstriction and stimulate aldesterone producction in kidneys which helps with water and salt retention, which also leads to increased bp
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Vassopressin is anti-diuretic hormone. It promotes the synthesis of aquaporins which leads to ore water reabsorption which means less urine is produced.
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Increase in plasma volume would lead to decrease in aldosteron, increased filtration and lower water reabsoption
Decrease in plasma volume would lead to increase in vasopressin and less filtration and more water reabsorption
higher CO2 concentration in body mean increased acidity. Hyperventilation vomiting leads too low acidity (alkalosis). Acidosis is too high acidity
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Excercise
When the respiratory quotient(CO2/O2) is equal to 1 than glucose is being used for ATP production. When the respiratory quotient is equal to 0.7 then Fat is being used for ATP production
As a product of metabolism of complex molecules ATP and CO2 are produced. Aceytl-CoA is an intermediate and pyruvate
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Lactate is turned to glucose by the liver through pyruvate. Muscles turn glucose into lactate aso through pyruvate. it takes ATP to convert lactate to glucose while it generates atp to convert glucose to lactate
burning nutrients captures energy in form of NADh(high energy electron). Which must be recycled (O2 requred for this)
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Aerobic atp production occurs in the mitochondrion whereas anaerobic atp production occurs in the cytoplasm
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Panting after excercise is a way to pay off the 'oxygen debt'. Cellular energy use exceeds oxygen uptake so you breath in more oxygen after excercise to get the oxygen your cells require
Alactic component is the short interval of panting where you inhale extra oxygen for resynthesis of creatine phosphate and ATP reserves, it is fast. Lactic component is a longer and slower interval of extra oxygen inhalation after excercise till you reach your baseline. This is to rid off of the lactic acid from your muscles and blood
In fibrosis of capillaries the partial pressure of oxygen is decreased along the length of the capillary
Higher Ph, lower temperature and lower CO2 means faster saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen
Lower Ph, higher temperature, Higher CO2 means slower saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen
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Blood pressure is equal to cardiac output times total peripheral resistannce(systematic vessel resistance)
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