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psychopathology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - four categories
        
        animal phobias (cynophobia- dogs)
        
        injury phobias (hemaphobia- blood)
        
        situational phobias (aerophobia- flying)
        
        natural phobias (hydrophobia- water)
    - - three categories
        
        performance phobias (diephophobia- public eating)
        
        interaction phobias (glossophobia- public speaking)
        
        generalised phobias
  - - - panic
        
        crying, screaming, running away
        
        children may react differently e.g. freezing
      - avoidance
        
        lots of effort into avoiding phobic stimulus
        
        can make everyday life hard e.g. fear of public toilets= lack of going outside
      - endurance
        
        a sufferer remains in presence of phobia with high levels of anxiety
        
        could be inescapable e.g. aerophobia
    - - anxiety
        
        unpleasant state of high arousal
        
        prevents relaxing or any positive emotion
        
        unreasonable/disproportionate emotional repsonses
  - - - classical conditioning
        
        neutral stimulus= something we don't fear
        
        unconditioned stimulus= something that triggers a fear response
        
        associate the two e.g. dog and bite
        
        after this association formed, conditioned stimulus causes fear- conditioned response
        
        WATSON AND RAYNOR 1920 little albert
      - operant conditioning
        
        negative reinforcement e.g. staying away from trigger and not feeling anxiety maintains the phobia
    - - alternative explanations for avoidance behaviour
        
        not all avoidance behaviour due to anxiety reduction
        
        agoraphobia motivated by staying safe rather than avoidance
        
        BUCK 2010 some patients comfortable leaving house with others as safe
      - incomplete explanation of phobias
        
        BOUNTON 2007 evolutionary factors role in phobias not accounted for by Mowrer
        
        SELIGMAN 1971 biological preparedness, innate predisposition to acquire certain fears
      - cognitive aspect of phobias
        
        two process model doesn't account for cognitions involved in phobias e.g. irrational fears
  - - - 1) fear hierarchy
        
        client and therapist develop
        
        adults score each level out of 100, children 10
        
        lowest rating could be pic of dog, highest trapped in room with dog
      - 2) relaxation techniques
        
        patient taught breathing techniques, muscle relaxtion
      - 3) reciprocal inhibition
        
        exposing patient to stimulus going up the fear hierarchy
        
        two emotional states can't occur at once
        
        going up hierarchy and using techniques, when patient can feel relaxed in presence of stimulus, they can go to the next stage
      - evaluation
        
        MCGRATH ET AL 1990 75% systematic desensitisation patients succesfully treated
        
        GILROY ET AL 2002 42 patients with arachnophobia each had 3 45 min sessions, examined 3mnths than 33mnths later. systematic desensitisation group less fearful than control group
        
        not effective in treating all phobias, patients with phobias not developed from trauma e.g. evolutionary phobia
    - - person exposed to most frightening situation immediately
        
        patient can't avoid in order to neg reinforce behaviour, with continuous exposure anxiety decreases
      - exposure can be in vivo (real life exposure) or in vitro (imaginary VR exposure**
      - evaluation
        
        cost effective as less time consuming, can be done in just one session while still being comparable to other treatments
        
        highly traumatic so many patients dont complete as too stressful
        
        not effective for all phobias such as social phobias and agoraphobia
        
        social phobias based on irrational thinking so CBT may be relevant if not caused by unpleasant experience
- - - - measures how well an individual is functioning and it considers the 7 factors of rosenhan and seligman plus occupational functioning
- - - - cognitive bias
        
        likely to focus on negative aspects
        
        over-generalisation and catastrophising
        
        ignoring positives
        
        negative self-schema
        
        schemas developed in childhood, Beck says depressed people have negative self-schemas which may come from negative experiences
        
        person with negative self-schema likely to interpret information about themselves negatively, leading to cognitive bias
        
        negative triad
        
        beck claimed prev two components maintain negative triad so thoughts occur automatically
        
        three point of triangle, negative view of self, the future and the world
    - - A = activating event
        
        an event occurs e.g. passing friend in corridor who ignores you
        
        B= beliefs
        
        interpretation of the event, rational or irrational
        
        rational= friend super busy
        
        irrational= friend hates you and doesn't want to speak
        
        C= consequences
        
        irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotional outcomes e.g. depression
        
        might block their friend as they believe they hate them
  - - - wouldn't work if a traumatic event caused depression e.g. victim of DV
- - - - OCD polygenic, several genes implicated
        
        COMT gene regulates dopamine, one variation of gene shows increased dopamine, found often in those with OCD
        
        SERT gene linked to transportation of seratonin, causing lower levels- also implicated in OCD
    - - neurotransmitters as well as brain structures
        
        abnormal levels of seratonin and dopamine implicated
        
        basal ganglia and orbitafrontal cortex implicated in OCD
        
        basal ganglia co-ordination of movement, patients w head injuries here suffer OCD
        
        MAX 1994
        
        when basal ganglia disconnected from frontal cortex, OCD symptoms reduced
        
        orbitofrontal cortex converts info into thoughts + actions, PET scans found higher activity in patients w OCD
        
        heightened activity in orbitofrontal cortex means increased conversion sensory info to actions, compulsions
    - - never 100% concordance rates in twin studies, can't purely be genetic
      - reductionist, reduces condition to one factor, some psychs look at similar ideas to 2 process model for obtainment and maintenance of OCD, particularly behaviours
      - diathesis stress model, research suggests trauma involvement in OCD, OCD result of patients genes interacting with environment
        CROMER ET AL 2007 over half OCD patients in sample had traumatic events in past, more severe if one or more traumas
  - - - symptoms reduced for around 70% patients
    - - SOOMRO ET AL 2008 research support, SSRIs more effective than placebos in treating OCD in 17 trials
        
        more cost-effective than CBT, more beneficial for healthcare providers
        
        non-disruptive, CBT needs motivation to go but drugs can be taken until symptoms subside, then CBT to sort out cause
      - side effects such as indigestion to hallucinations can occur
        
        BZ highly addictive and can cause long term impairments and increased aggression, diminish effectiveness as patients may stop taking due to side effects
        
        unreliable evidence for drug treatments, GOLDACRE 2013 research into effectiveness of drug treatments is biased because research is sponsored by drug companies