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Chapter 9 & 10, Sources: Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A.,…
Chapter 9 & 10
Ch 9. Cellular Respiration and Fermentation
Catabolic Pathways
Fermentation:
makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose w/o an ETC and produces a characteristic end product,
ex: ethyl alcohol or lactic acid
Aerobic Respiration:
using O2 as the final electron acceptor in an ETC and produces ATP, most efficient cataboolic pathway and is performed in most eukaryotic cells and many prokaryotic organisms
Cellular Respiration:
aerobic and anaerobic respiration, breaks down organic molecules and use ETC for the production of ATP
Glycolysis:
splits glucose into pyruvate, starting point for fermentation or cellular respiration
Citric Acid Cycle:
completes metabolic breakdown for glucose molecules beginning in glycolysis, occurs within mitochondrion in eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes, 2nd major stage in CR
Oxidative Phosphorylation:
production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an ETC, 3rd major stage of CR
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation:
enzyme-catalyzed formation of ATP by direct transfer of a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism
The Principle of Redox
Redox Reaction:
chemical reaction involving the complete or partial transfer of 1 or more electrons from 1 reactant to another
Reducing Agent:
electron donor in a redox reaction
Oxidizing Agent:
electron acceptor in a redox reaction
Oxidation:
complete or partial loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction,
ex: rusting of iron
Reduction:
complete or partial addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction,
ex: pyruvate to lactate
NADH:
reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide that temporarily stores electrons during cellular respiration, acts as an electron donor to the ETC
Electron Transport Chain:
a sequence of electron carrier molecules that shuffle electrons down a series of redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP
Energy-Yielding Oxidation of Organic Molecules
Acetyl CoA:
the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in CR, formed from 2-carbon fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme
Chemiosmosis Couples Electron Transport to ATP Synthesis
Cytochrome:
iron-containing protein that is a component of ETC's in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membranes of prokaryotic cells
Chemiosmosis:
energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work (synthesis of ATP)
Proton-Motive Force:
potential energy stores in the form of a proton electrochemical gradient, generated by pumping of H+ ions across membrane
ATP Synthase:
several membrane proteins that function in chemiosmosis with adjacent ETC, using the energy of a H+ ion concentration gradient to make ATP, found in inner mitochondrial membranes/plasma membranes
Fermentation/Anaerobic Respiration
Alcohol Fermentation:
glycolysis followed by the reduction of pyruvate to ethyl alcohol, regenerating NAD+ and releasing CO2
Lactic Acid Fermentation:
glycolysis followed by the reduction of pyruvate to lactate, regenerating NAD+ with no release of CO2
Obligate Anaerobes:
organism that carries out only fermentation or anaerobic respiration such as organisms cannot use O2 and in fact may be poisoned by it
Facultative Anaerobes:
organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if O2 is present but switches to anaerobic respiration/fermentation if O2 is not present
Glycolysis & Citric Acid Cycle
Beta Oxidation:
metabolic sequence that breaks fatty acids into 2-carbon fragments that enter the citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA
Ch. 10 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis Feeds the Biosphere
Photosynthesis:
conversion of light energy to chemical energy which is stored in sugars or other organic compounds,
ex: plants, algae, certain prokaryotes
Autotrophs:
obtains organic food molecules ww/o eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms; use energy from the sun/oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules,
ex: algae
Heterotroph:
organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or substances derived from them,
ex: animals
Light Energy to Chemical Energy
Chloroplast:
organelle in plants/photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis or organic compounds from CO2 and H2O
Mesophyll:
leaf cells for photosynthesis
Stroma:
fluid within the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane and containing ribosomes and DNA; involved in synthesis of organic molecules
Thylakoids:
membranous sac inside a chloroplast; exist in stacks called grand that are interconnected - converts light to chemical energy
Chlorophyll:
green pigment located in membrane within the chloroplasts of plants and algae; chlorophyll a is related to light reactions, converting solar to chemical energy
Chlorophyll a:
pigment that participates directly in the light reactions, converting solar to chemical energy
Chlorophyll b:
accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a
NADPH:
reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; temporarily stores energized electrons produced during the light reactions
Phosphorylation:
process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of chemiosmosis;uses proton-motive force during the light reactions of photosynthesis
Carbon Fixation:
initial incorporation of C from CO2 into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism
Light Reactions
Wavelength:
distance between crests of waves, those of the electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
entire spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
Visible Light:
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be detected as various colors by the human eye, ranging from 380 nm to 740 nm
Photons:
quantum of light energy that behaves as if it were a particle,
ex: radio waves
Spectrophotometer:
instrument that measur4es the proportions of light of different wavelengths absorbed and transmitted by a pigment solution
Absorption Spectrum:
range of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light
Action Spectrum:
graph that profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving a process
Carotenoid:
accessory pigment (yellow/orange) in the chloroplasts of plants and in some prokaryotes; broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis
Photosystem
Photosystem:
light-capturing unit located in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast or in the membrane of some prokaryotes; includes rxn-center complex and light-harvesting complexes,
ex: photosystem I & II
Rxn Center Complex:
triggers the light-run of photosynthesis
Light-Harvesting Complex:
complex of proteins associated with pigment molecules (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) that capture light energy and transfers it to rxn center
Primary Electron Acceptor:
specialized molecule that shares the run-center complex with a pair of chlorophyll a molecules and accepts an electron from them
Linear Electron Flow:
route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems I and II and produces ATP, NADPH, and O2
Cyclic Electron Flow:
route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves only one photosystem and that produces ATP but not NADPH or O2
Calvin Cycle
Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate:
3-carbon carbohydrate that is the direct product of the Calvin Cycle; serves as an intermediate in glycolysis
Rubisco:
enzyme the normally catalyzes the first step of the Calvin Cycle
Alternative Mechanisms of Carbon Fixation
C3 Plant:
uses the Calvin Cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a 3-carbon compound as the first stable intermediate
C4 Plant:
Calvin cycle is preceded by reactions that incorporate CO2 into 4-carbon compound, the end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle
Bundle-Sheath Cells:
type of photosynthetic cell arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of a leaf
CAM Plants:
uses crassulacean acid metabolism; CO2 entering open stomata during the night is converted to organic acids
Photorespiration:
metabolic pathway that consumes O2 and ATP, releases CO2, and decreases photosynthetic output; occurs on hot, dry, bright days
PEP Carboxylase:
enzyme that adds CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate to form oxaloacetate in mesophyll cells of C4 plants
Sources: Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., & Reece, J. B. (2017). Campbell Biology (12th ed.). Pearson.