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Enzymes and Biotechnology & Genetic Modification. Agustina Mannará,…

- - - - Yeasts
        
        Aerobic respiration
        
        Glucose + Oxygen →Carbon dioxide + Water
        
        Breaks down sugars, makes more ATP energy
        
        Anaerobic respiration
        
        Glucose → Ethanol + Energy+ Carbon Dioxide
        
        Fermentation
        
        Biofuels made by yeasts:
        
        Fuel made using biological materials (yeats)
        
        Sugar for reaction from
        
        2 more items...
        
        Bread making
        
        Yeast produce
        
        CO2
        
        1 more item...
        
        Ethanol
        
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      - Any technology based on biology
  - - - Disadvantages
        
        ↑ Dependancy chemicals
        
        Herbicides that crops are resistant to
        
        Companies that produce the seed
        
        Inserted genes transferred to other plants by pollination
        
        Reduce usefulness of GM crop
        
        ↓ Biodiversity
        
        Herbicides used=
        
        ↓Plant species
        
        GM plants dont grow as well as non-GM plants
        
        ↑$ seeds
        
        Small farmers who cant afford the seeds= cant compete with larger farmers
    - - Restriction enzymes: used to cut bacterial plasmid and isolate human gene
        
        Complementary sticky ends
        
        Allows bacterial plasmid and human gene to link by the DNA ligase
        
        Plasmid becomes "recombinant plasmid"
        
        Recombinant plasmid inserted in bacterial cell
        
        1 more item...
        
        Bacterial plasmid: used as vector
    - - Examples
        
        human genes into bacteria = human proteins
        
        Human insulin
        
        Blood proteins to treat haemophilia
        
        Growth hormone
        
        Interferon to treat cancer
        
        Crop plant
        
        Improve nutritional quantities
        
        Golden rice
        
        Genes from maize and bacteria
        
        Carotane
        
        1 more item...
        
        Resistance to herbicides
        
        Soya not affected by glyphosate
        
        Resistance to pests
    - - Advantages
        
        ↓ Use chemicals
        
        Better for environment
        
        ↓$ / ↓Time consuming for farmers
        
        ↑Yield
        
        No competition with weeds for resources
        
        No pests damage
  - - - removing (eliminate undesirable traits)
        
        Organism receiving genetic material = "genetically modified" or "trasngenic organism"
        
        DNA of organism that now contains DNA from other organism = "Recombinant DNA"
      - changing (modify gen sequence)
      - or inserting genes from another organism
- - - - Main aspects
        
        Affect reaction rates without being consumed
        
        Specificity: they are specific for a certain substrate, as the shape of the active site and the substrates are complementary. Once they fit together, they form a structure so that then the substrate turns into product
        
        The structure that forms is the "enzyme-substrate complex"
        
        "Lock and Key model"
  - - - Temperature
        
        At their optimum temperature (37°C in the body), they work faster
        
        Beyond optimum temperature
        
        Denaturation (irreversible)
        
        No longer works to catalyse as the active site's shape changes= no specificity= cant link with substrate
        
        Below optimum temperature
        
        Not enough kinetic energy for high frequency of effective collisions = not much linking between enzyme and substrate = work slower
      - pH
        
        Too high or too low
        
        The bonds that hold the amino acid chain together to make up the protein can be destroyed
        
        Active site changes
        
        No enzyme action
        
        Optimum =7 pH
  - - - Fruit juice
        
        Pectinase + cellulase
        
        Break insoluble substances into soluble ones
        
        Make juices clearer
      - Biological washing powders
        
        Enzymes
        
        Proteases → Proteins
        
        Break food stains
        
        Amylase → Starch based stains
        
        Lipases →Lipids (fats + oils)
        
        Detergents
        
        Help oils and insoluble fats mix with water
      - Lactose → (lactase)→ glucose + galactose
        
        Glucose + galactose = make sweets
        
        Make lactose-free milk
      - To accelerate the breakdown of sugars in biofuels made by yeasts.
  - - - Catalyst: Substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction, and is not changed nor consumed by it.
        
        Named after the reaction they catalyse. Their name almost always ends with -ase.
        
        Examples
        
        Hydrogen peroxide 🠲 (catalase) 🠲 water + hydrogen.
        
        Important for living organisms because they accelerate metabolic reactions, in order to sustain life.
- - - - Optimal= Enzymes work efficiently
  - - - For aerobic respiration
  - - - No ↑ pH