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Chapter 5 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - The repeating units that serve as building blocks
        are called monomers
  - - - Carbohydrate macromolecules are polysaccharides, polymers composed of many sugar building blocks
  - - - Starch
        
        storage polysaccharide of plants,
        consists of glucose monomers
        
        Plants store surplus starch as granules within
        chloroplasts and other plastids
        
        The simplest form of starch is amylose
      - Glycogen
        
        a storage polysaccharide in animals
        
        Glycogen is stored mainly in liver and muscle cells
        
        Hydrolysis of glycogen in these cells releases glucose when the demand for sugar increases
    - - cellulose
        
        major component of the tough wall of plant cells
      - Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but the glycosidic linkages differ
        
        The difference is based on two ring forms for glucose: alpha (α) and beta (β)
        
        Starch (α configuration) is largely helical
        
        Cellulose molecules (β configuration) are straight
        and unbranched
        
        Some hydroxyl groups on the monomers of cellulose can hydrogen-bond with hydroxyls of parallel cellulose molecules
        
        Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing α
        linkages can’t hydrolyze β linkages in cellulose
        
        The cellulose in human food passes through the
        digestive tract as “insoluble fiber”
        
        Some microbes use enzymes to digest cellulose
        
        Many herbivores, from cows to termites, have
        symbiotic relationships with these microbes
      - Chitin
        
        structural polysaccharide, is found
        in the exoskeleton of arthropods
        
        Chitin also provides structural support for the cell
        walls of many fungi
- - - - The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head
      - At the surface of a cell, phospholipids are also arranged in a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior
- - - - have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds
    - - have one or more double bonds
    - - contribute more than
        saturated fats to cardiovascular disease
  - - - Adipose tissue also cushions vital organs and
        insulates the body
- - - - The specific activities of proteins result from their
        intricate three-dimensional architecture
      - A functional protein consists of one or more
        polypeptides precisely twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape
      - The sequence of amino acids determines a
        protein’s three-dimensional structure
      - A protein’s structure determines how it works
      - The function of a protein usually depends on
        its ability to recognize and bind to some other molecule
    - - Secondary structure, found in most proteins,
        consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain
        
        The coils and folds of secondary structure result from hydrogen bonds between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone
        
        Typical secondary structures are a coil called an
        α helix and a folded structure called a β pleated sheet
      - Tertiary structure is determined by interactions
        among various side chains (R groups)
        
        overall shape of a polypeptide, results from interactions between R groups, rather than interactions between backbone constituents
        
        These interactions include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals interactions
        
        Strong covalent bonds called disulfide bridges
        may reinforce the protein’s structure
      - The primary structure of a protein is its unique
        sequence of amino acids
        
        The primary structure of a protein is its sequence
        of amino acids
      - Quaternary structure results when a protein
        consists of multiple polypeptide chains
        
        results when two or more
        polypeptide chains form one macromolecule
        
        Collagen is a fibrous protein consisting of three
        polypeptides coiled like a rope
        
        Hemoglobin is a globular protein consisting of
        four polypeptides: two α and two β subunits
  - - - Amino acids are linked by covalent bonds called
        peptide bonds
- - - - The location of the carbonyl group (as aldose or ketose)
      - The number of carbons in the carbon skeleton
- - - - type of steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes and a precursor from which other steroids are synthesized