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The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules, Sources: Urry, L…
The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules
Macromolecules
Macromolecules:
large molecule formed by joining of smaller molecules,
ex: polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids
Polymer:
long molecule with many similar identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds,
ex: DNA
Enzymes:
macromolecule serving as a catalyst, increases the ate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction,
ex: amylase
Dehydration Reaction:
chemical reaction which 2 molecules become covalently bonded to each other (removal of water),
ex: carbohydrate and protein polymers are synthesized by dehydration reactions
Hydrolysis:
chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water,
ex: disassembly of polymers to monomers
Monomers:
subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer,
ex: nucleotides, amino acids
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates:
a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its fibers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides)
Monosaccharides:
simplest carbohydrates, serving as a monomer for disaccharides or polysaccharides, monosaccharides have molecular formulas/multiples of CH2O
Disaccharide:
2 molecules joined by a glycosidic linkage,
ex: maltose
Glycosidic Linkage:
covalent bond formed between 2 monosaccharides by dehydration reaction
Polysaccharide:
polymer of many monosaccharides formed by dehydration reactions
Storage Polysaccharides
Starch:
storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by glycosidic linkages
Glycogen:
extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals, animal equivalent of starch
Cellulose:
structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consists of glucose monomers joined by b glycosidic linkages
Chitin:
consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in fungal cell walls and in exoskeletons of all arthropods
Lipids
Lipids:
group of large biological molecules, mix poorly (if at all) with water,
ex: fats, phospholipids, steroids
Fats
Fats:
lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule,
ex: triacylglycerol/triglyceride
Fatty Acids:
carboxylic acid with long carbon chain, very in length and number/location of double bonds, 3 fatty acid linked to glycerol molecule form fat molecule - triacylglycerol or triglyceride
Saturated Fatty Acid:
all carbons in the hydrogen tail are connected by single bonds, maximizes # hydrogen atoms attached to carbon skeleton,
ex: stearic acid
Hydrogenated Vegetable Oil:
unsaturated fats synthetically converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen
Unsaturated Fatty Acid:
1 or more double bonds between carbons in hydrocarbon tail, reduces # hydrogen atoms attached to carbon skeleton
Trans Fat:
unsaturated, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, one or more trans double bonds
Phospholipids
Phospholipids:
made up of glycerol joined to 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group, hydrophobic tails, hydrophilic heads, forms bilayers
Steroids
Steroids:
carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached
Cholesterol:
steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for synthesis of other steroids,
Proteins
Amino Acids (monomers):
organic molecule with both a carboxyl and an amino group, monomers of polypeptides,
ex: glycine, alanine
Catalysts:
chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction w/o being consumed by reaction,
ex: enzymes
Protein:
biologically functional molecule consisting of 1 or more polypeptides folded and coliled into a 3D structure,
ex: hemoglobin
4 Levels of Structure:
primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
Denaturation:
protein loses its shape due to disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, becomes biologically inactive, ex: caused by temp., pH, salt concentration
Sickle Cell Disease (change in primary structure):
single nucleotide change in the a-globin gene causes hemoglobin to aggregate, change in red blood cell shape
X-Ray Crystallography:
technique to study the 3D structure of molecules, diffraction of x-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule
Polypeptide:
polymer consisting of many nucleotides in a chain, DNA or RNA
Peptide Bonds:
covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another (dehydration synthesis)
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids:
polymer (polynucleotide) with many nucleotide monomers, blueprint for proteins - cellular activity,
ex: DNA/RNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA):
nucleic acid molecule, double stranded, each strand consists of nucleic monomers w/ deoxyribose sugar and nitrogenous bases A, T, C, G
Pyrimidine:
1 six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms,
ex: cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U)
Purines:
6-membered ring fused to a 5-membered ring,
ex: adenine (A) and guanine (G)
Deoxyribose:
sugar component, one fewer hydroxyl group than ribose
Double Helix:
form of DNA, two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape
Antiparallel: t
he arrangements of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix, opposite 5' and 3' direction
Ribonucleic Acids:
nucleic acid with nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases A, C, G, U
Ribose:
sugar component of RNA nucleotides
Polynucleotides:
polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain, RNA or DNA
Nucleotides:
building block of nucleic acids, 5-carbon sugar covalently bonded to nitrogenous base and 1 to 3 phosphate groups
Gene:
unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA(RNA)
Gene Expression:
encoded DNA directs the synthesis of protein (or RNA) that are not translated into proteins and instead function as RNA's
Proteomics and Genomics
Bioinformatics:
computers, software, and mathematical models to process and integrate biological information from large data sets,
ex: predicting protein structures
Genomics:
study of whole sets of genes and their interactions within a species,
ex: understanding disease risks
Proteomics:
sets of proteins and their properties, including abundance, chemical modifications, and interactions
Sources: Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., & Reece, J. B. (2017). Campbell Biology (12th ed.). Pearson.