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POLICY ANALYSIS - Coggle Diagram

- - - - of policy (academic study, done to study and understand policy)
        
        descriptive
        
        theoretical
        
        policy sciences
        
        academic policy analysis
      - for policy (real world use, done to help policymakers make decisions)
        
        applied
        
        prescriptive
        
        applied policy analysis
        
        focused on finding best solution to a problem
      - differences: academic policy analysis is independent from applied policy analysis, they are not complementary
    - - multi-disciplinary
        
        multimethod
        
        problemoriented
        
        mapping of contexts, alternatives, effects
  - - - "anything a government chooses to do or not to do"
        
        too general: provides no means of differentiating between the trivial and the significant aspects of government activities
        
        it presumes that an underlying process exists behind decisionmaking but not state it explicitly.
      - merits
        
        primary agent in policy-making is the government
        
        public policy-making involves a fundamental choice on the part of gvts. to either do sth or nothing about a problem
        
        public policy is a conscious choice by gvt., actions and decisions yield unintended consequences
    - - "set of interralated decisions taken by a political actor or group of actors concerning the selection of goals and the means of achieving them within a specific situation where those decisions should, in principle, be whitin the power of those actors to achieve"
        
        Jenkins however presents policymaking as inherently dynamic process and explicitly acknowledges that governments rarely address problems with a single decision
        
        Improves also Dye's definition by recognising that a government's capacity to formulate and implement its decisions exerts a significant influence on publicpolicy making and policy outputs are a major consideration
        
        also recognises limitations of gvts. ability to think and act: constrain decision options
        
        idea of policymaking as goal-oriented behaviour: public policies are decisions taken by gvt. that define a goal and set out means to achieve it
    - - "a purposive course of action followed by an actor or set of actors in dealing with a problem or matter of concern for the population"
  - - - policy subsystem: composed of only those actors with sufficient knowledge of a problem area to allow them to participate in the process
      - policy actors: whether all, many, or few, can be termed the policy universe
    - - elected politicians
        
        administrative officials
        
        political parties, and their study centres
        
        research organisations, academic institutes, think tanks
        
        mass media
        
        (voters/citizens/individuals)
  - - - helps to reduce complexity
        
        mapping and clarifying the roles of actors, institutions, and ideas/interests
    - - policy is non-systematic, non-linear
        
        idiosyncratic problem solving
        
        stages compressed or skipped
        
        causes and effects unclear
        
        does not say anything at all about the content of a policy
    - - LASSWELL 1965: divides policy process into seven stages: intelligence, promotion, presciption, invocation, application, termination, appraisal
      - BREWER 1974: only 6: invention/initiation, estimation, selection, implementation, evaluation, termination
- - - - deductive: understanding is developed largely on the basis of applying general presuppositions, concepts or principles to specific phenomena
      - inductive: methods that develop generalisations on the basis of careful observation of empirical phenomena and subsequent testing of these generalisations against other cases
  - - - exclusivity: refers to transactions involving a good or service limited to the consumption or use by a single consumer
      - exhaustiveness: refers to goods and services whose consumption diminishes their availabilitty to others
  - - - central role of many interest groups
        
        overlapping, fluid membership
        
        neo-pluralism: acknowledging some groups are more powerful than others
        
        BUT: limited application, role of state uncliear
    - - small number of influential interest groups
        
        representative monopoly
        
        specific interactions state-interest groups
        
        BUT: limited application, reductionist, unclear about influence
  - - - rational choice (focuses on individuals whose actions are shaped by the particular institutional environmet within which they exist.
        
        historical
        
        sociological (norms and values within organisations are said to influence behaviour by conditioning actiors/notions of appropiate behaviour
- - - - federal or unitary
      - presidential/parliamentary system
      - two-part system or multi-part system
      - proportional or majority voting system (the role of individual legislators is lower in parliaments in which one party has clear majority; the existence of several minor parties in coalition gvts. on the other hand, permitting them a greater opportunity to express their opinion and force gvt. to deal w them)
      - single party in government or coalition
      - role of the courts
      - structure of the administration
      - effectiveness, tempo, procedures, roles, etc. + Democratic, industrialised, liberal states
  - - - discretional competency by law to initiate policies, formulate, decide, implement
      - spending power (gvt.=largest spender in most countries which gives official a powerful voice in many policy areas)
      - in-house specialists and expertise
      - continuity and permanence
      - access to info
      - policy deliberations occur in secret within the bureaucract often denies other policy actors chance oppose plans
      - vertical and horizontal autonomy
      - high vs. low profile policies
      - interal fragmentation and concentration
  - - - control over information and fiscal means (favours executive bc legislative approval of budget usually permits wide areas of discretion for the executive)
      - privileged access to mass media
      - permanent support through the administration, control over policy-making process and agenda
      - complexity: difficult to counterbalance resources, growing size of functions
      - conflicting: many societal demands
      - constitutional role and formal authority to initiate, make, and implement policies
  - - - mobility of capital and investments
      - financial support of political parties
      - financial contributions to policy reseearch
  - - - organisation (centralised, not fragmented: weak and fragmented state will not be able to secure effective participation by unions bc. the latter would see little certainty that the gvt. would be able to keep its side of any bargain)
      - membership levels (the level of membership affect the extent to which states seek or even accept union participation in the policy process)
      - centralised and decentralised negotiation structures: decentralised collective bargaining promotes a fragmented articulation of labour demands
    - - neo-corporatist vs. pluralist tradition
      - direct and indirect strategies for influence
  - - - differences between groups matter
        
        'encompassing' (umbrella) groups vs. narrow groups (might focus on their own interest)
        
        unity and fragmentation of groups
    - - policy autonomy (develop and articulate): can the gvt. make its own decisions?
        
        policy capacity (mobilise and resolve): can the gvt. acc do things/solve problems, enforce rules, make change?
        
        strong states (autonomy: can make decisions/capacity: can get things done)
        
        states: weak parliament - weak state; (dependency/incapacity; strong parliament: parliament stronger but state cannot act freely)
  - - - transnational companies
        
        increasing economic integration
        
        communication and media and spreading of effects
        
        world agenda - domestic agenda
    - - similar policies because of internatonalisation (recognition of the international system's influence on domestic public policy) (macro): spillovers (previously isloated sectors converge, overlap and collide), learning from experiences of others, transfer from domestic: international
- - - - HOW?: when policy instruments come in
    - - classical/welfare economics + political sciences
      - debate
        
        state intervention and legitimate coercion
        
        use PI to affect/change human/societal behaviour and solve problems
      - developments
        
        classifying/typologising (policy researcheers have sought ways to group roughly similar types of instruments into a few categories whose merits and demerits could then be analysed more easily)
        
        Kirschen: 64 instruments
        
        Salomon: 10 methods of collective action
        
        policy instrument choice: why isntrument A in country X and instrument B in country Y: choice criteria
  - - - information
        
        nodality:
        
        nudging
        
        information campaigns
        
        labers and rankings
        
        benchmarks, performance indicators, studeies, advice
        
        exhortation: trying to influence preferences and actions of society
        
        commissions and inquiries (temporarty bodies to gather information on a issue or procrastinating on making decisions)
        
        advantages:
        
        adjustable general/targeted
        
        where no definite solution can be found
        
        low costs
        
        disadvantages:
        
        passive
        
        not for crises
        
        sometimes only symbolic
      - authority
        
        Regulation (prescription by the gvt. that must be complied with by the intended targets; not doing: penalty)
        
        • Demands/directions/rules
        
        • Market regulation: (varies somewhat depending on whether they are targeted at one problem type or another)
        
        Economic regulation (price and production control)
        
        Social regulation (physical and moral welfare, e.g. gambling, discrimination, …)
        
        Environmental regulation as a mixed type
        
        disadvantages:
        
        capacity for implementation, enforcement and sanctions
        
        low flexibility (usually do not permit the consideration of individual circumstances)
        
        administrative complexity and burdens
        
        curb market(innovation (inhibit innovation and progress because of market security they afford)
        
        advantages:
        
        low cost
        
        crisis instrument
        
        symbolically attractive (where the concerned activity is deemed undesirable (pedophilia) it is easier to establish regulations)
        
        Self-regulation
        
        • Market actors (or occupational groups) implement their own rules that apply to all their members.
        
        • > Pressures for deregulation, liberalisation of markets
        
        Production, trading and pricing (reduced costs) + Safety and risk mgt, oversight and inspections
        
        Expertise within sector vs. regulatory capture (when industry acts in its own interests, not the public's)
        
        command and control regulation
        
        self-regulation, convenants/code of conduct
      - money/treasure
        
        treasure
        
        subsidies: allowances, tax deductions, vouchers, loans (from the gvt at an interst rate below the market rate also a form of subsidy)
        
        taxes (legally prescribed compulsory payment to gvt. by a person/firm) and charges
        
        grants
        
        subsidies:
        
        advantages:
        
        flexible to administer (bc participants decide for themselves how to resond to the subsidy in the light of changing circumstances)
        
        stimulates innovation
        
        politically attractive (bs benefits are concentrated on a few and costs spread across population)
        
        easy to establish if gvt. and organisations share proference for doing a particular activity
        -
        
        disadvantages:
        
        budgeting (their establishment through formal budgetary process is often difficult)
        
        disturbs market competition
        
        large info (cost of gathering info on how much subsidy is required)
        
        reqiuirements
        
        not for crisis
        
        difficult to abolish
        
        may be redundant
        
        may be banned in international agreements
      - organisation
        
        direct public provisions (instead of waiting for the private sector to do sth. gvt. perfomrs the task itself)
        
        public enterprises (state-owned enterprises)
        
        public enterprises:
        
        involve a large degree of public ownership
        
        entail some control over management by the gvt.
        
        produce goods and services that are sold
        
        advantages:
        
        accumulation of expertise and internal capacity
        
        low transaction costs (internalisation)
        
        strategic control over crucil sectors
        
        easy to establish (low info requirements)
        
        disadvantages:
        
        political influence (more focused on re-election prospects than actual political needs)
        
        not very cost-conscious (so tax payers ultimately pay)
        
        goal displacement (delivery of programmes may suffer because)
        
        inflexibility (cannot always do what the private sector can)
  - - - compulsory instruments (high force)
        
        regulation
        
        public enterprises
        
        direct public provision
        
        limit individual choice
        
        high degree of force/coercion
      - mixed instruments (medium force)
        
        information and blaming
        
        subsidies
        
        property tights
        
        use taxes and charges
        
        behaviour/preference modification possible
      - voluntary instruments (low force)
        
        family and communities
        
        voluntary organisations
        
        private markets
        
        no or low state involvement:
        
        economic self-interest, moral values, emotional satisfaction drive behaviour
        
        applied to social and economic policies
        
        involves ofter privatisation and
        
        belief in individual liberties, cost containment and 'communitarianism'
  - - - in theory (normative approach rooted in rationality, positivism):
        
        problem: solution: policy goal: policy instuments: selection (rational logical decision)
        
        instrument selection = objective 'weighing' of options based on specific criteria (based on evidence and criteria)
      - in practice (post-positivism)
        
        PI choice not objective
        
        biased and based on: ideology, educational background (human bias and politics based on ideology, habit, education, etc.
  - - - traditional view = citizens, business act consciously, +/- rationally
      - BI posits that unconscious biases drive behaviour
      - different instruments needed to effectively change it and achieve policy goals
    - - tap into unconscious biases:
      - no coercion, not financial
        
        Nudge to change the information environment (change in how the information is presented)
        
        Nudge to change the physical environment (changes to the environment, change things and how they convey their message)
        
        Nudge to change the social environment
        
        Nudge to change the default option (for example, in Belgium it is default that you are an organ donor (when you are born you automatically are and if you don’t want to be you have to do something/act), making the rate or organ donors higher than if it was otherwise and you had to act to actually become an organ donor, since you are not a default one).
- - - - objective reasoning (based on logic and facts)
        
        knowledge of reality and truth (believes problems are real and can be solved with reason)
        
        rational analysis, instrumental problem identificatoin-goal solution: problem-->goal-->solution-->action
    - - multiple truths based on (there is not just one truth)
        
        collective values, ideas, and persuasive argumentation (people define problems based on values, beliefs, politics)
        
        actor-relations and social knowledge
        
        coincidence
  - - - the facts speak for themselves
        
        economic and technology determinism: little attention to political, cultural, ideological factors; convergence hypothesis: all countries will eventually face and deal with the same issues as they modernise
        
        political economy matters (how political decisions and economic systems interact): political business cycle, political economy and political actors
    - - role of ideas, values, beliefs (problems are not jsust found but created) and ideologies (all of these shape which problems get attention)
        
        central role of argumentation (it matters): policy problems as narratives (someone frames them in a certain way), madia and the definition of problems.
        
        exploitation by professionals and experts (play huge role in defining what the problem is)
  - - - example: subject: people living in the streets; problem: homeless people--> solution: housing assistance
        problem: vagrancy and loitering--> solution: police monitoring
  - - - stories of change: explain what has changed and why sth must be done
        
        Decline – Things have gotten worse → Urgency for action. E.g., “School performance is getting worse—we need reform.”
        
        Stymied Progress – Improvement stalled → We must intervene again. E.g., “Child poverty was improving but is now rising again.”
        
        Change is an Illusion – What seemed like progress/decline was false → Reframe the issue. E.g., “Crime stats dropped due to reporting tricks, not real change.”
      - stories of power: explain who has control, and whether action is possible or justified
        
        Helplessness & Control – We felt powerless, but we can act now. E.g., “We can fight climate change with renewables.”
        
        Conspiracy – Powerful actors are hiding truth/control. E.g., “Corporations concealed pollution risks.”
        
        Blame the Victim – Victims are at fault → No policy action needed.E.g., “Poor people cause their own poverty.”
  - - - powerful images
        
        make a problem concrete, allow people to identify with or distance
        
        reduces the scope of the problem, makes it more maneageable
      - individual examples as symbolic representations to illsutrate a larger point
        
        e.g. welfare qeens, etc.
        
        extreme version: reducing a large-scale problem to a single instance
  - - - • Global warming?
      - • Normal oscillation?
      - • Building below or too close to waterline?
      - • Not allowing rivers to flood and replenish sediments?
      - • Loss of wetlands due to industry and housing?
      - • Governments insufficiently rebuilding levees?
      - • Lack of response by (local) goverment?
      - • Lack of preparation by (local) government?
      - • Corruption and bad infrastructure?
      - • Social inequalities that do not allow poor to live in safer areas?
      - • Divine punishment?
  - - - KINGDONS AGENDA SETTING THEORY
        
        MULTIPLE STREAMS FRAMEWORK
        
        3 streams (problem, policy, politics) that converge due to chance/crisis/event in the politics stream: when? window opportunity opens upon which the issue appears on the policy agenda
        
        coupling of streams is done by 'policy entrepreneurs'
        
        policy windows: types and timing vary
- - - - limitations to formulating/rejection of policy solutions:
        
        substantial types and boundaries of policy problems
        
        institutional
        
        tactical (acceptance, ethics)
        
        capacity for collecting and processing information
        
        power in actor relations and preferences
  - - - share visions or beliefs
        
        prior to interests is their communal policy focus
    - - plurality (2/3) of communities in all policy areas
        
        but no structured interaction or interest advocacy!
  - - - networks share a policy solution focus
        
        advocated interests
        
        members do not necessarily share the same interests
    - - definition of other network types
  - - - rational goal oriented: - application of formal (or informal) methods for analysis
        
        ...to define, weigh and assess merits and risks of policy alternatives
    - - consists in providing recs or opinions about future courses of gvt. action
        
        competition for radvice within policy advisory systems
- - - - authoritative decisions/policy choices made here
        
        grounded in previous stages
        
        winners and losers
  - - - BUT limitations and variations:
        
        rules, structures, procedures - political system
        
        interpretations, preferences, ideologies
        
        advocates of interests (e.g. ACF)
        
        choice challenges relating to uncertainty and ambiguity
  - - - regardless of who makes a policy selection and on what grounds, the results will fit into one of just a few categories. although the actual substance/content of a decision can be infinitely varied, its effect will be to either perpetuate the policy STATUS QUO or alter it
    - - positive: change the policy status quo and receive the most attention in the literature
        
        negative: they are deliberate choices to maintain the status quo, even after considering change. they stop the policy cycle at the choice stage, preventing implementation
        
        non-decisions: occur earlier in the process agenda-setting/formulation. change is avoided before even it reaches decision makers. often influenced by ideology, power structures, or social blind spots
  - - - • Typically used by analysts
      - • Attractive/normative/idealized portrayal of policy/decision-making
      - • 1920s-1950s dominant
        
        Philosophic foundations: enlightenment, positivism
        
        Scientific method, engineering method, manager method
        
        While rational, best options not always accepted/supported by people
      - IN THEORY (this theory is not realistic)
        
        determining the goals for solving a problem
        
        exploring all possible strategies to reach the goal
        3- exploring all important consequences of policy alternatives estimating the probability of consequences
        
        choice as strategic with largest benefits and lowest costs
      - RATIONAL II (real world view)
        
        • Strong belief in rationalism, also normative belief in how policies should be made
        
        • 1950s criticism:
        
        • Bounded Rationality (Simon, 1955, 1957): assumptinos in rational model not met and limitations to rationality
        
        Cognitive informational limits to knowing
        
        Impossible rational appraisal of problems and their solutions/consequences
        
        Political/cognitive biases, preferences
        
        most decisions are not maximising but "satisficing" (we pick sth that is good enough not necessarily perfect
    - - • Lindblom (1959): alternative to rational model
      - • Decisions are made in an incremental way through a process of bargaining and compromise
        
        Limited number of alternatives
        
        Only familiar alternatives, small changes, copy from others
      - • Policy goals
        
        not very important
        
        mixed with other values/interests
      - • Deciding on remedial action
        
        instead of proactive action
        
        trial and error sequencing
      - optimal and feasible decisions step-by-step building from the status-quo
      - stick close to what's already being done
        
        focus on fixing current problems
        
        try one small change
        
        mix facts with values
        
        only look at important consequences
        
        let many people work on different parts of the problem
      - INCREMENTAL II
        
        Science of muddling through (people in gvt. do not make mig perfect plans based on full knowledge, instead they mostly tweak what is already there, making small changes step-by-step)
        
        small adaptations of the status quo, difficult to do something new
        
        remedying, problem-solving, short-term instead of goal finding, long term
        
        Causes?
        
        Negotiations & bargaining
        
        Standard procedures, path dependence (e.g. inflation-based raising of benefits)
        
        Goal setting difficult or confusion goals-means (e.g. indexation)
        
        political yet still systematic approach
      - III
        
        • Normative criticism
        
        Conservative, no new policies
        
        Short-term view, short-sighted
        
        No focus on the direction of change, except next election
        
        • Analytical criticism: model incorrect
        
        Many situations described, but only when continuity and availability of means
        
        Only for stabile policy contexts
        
        • What is ‘small’ change?
        
        model widely applicable, yet in a crisis, more room for new solutions, larger degrees of change, steps away from status-quo
    - - • Garbage can model (March & Olsen) (a way to describe how decisions are sometimes made in messy, chaotic organisations, they said: decisionmaking is often like a garbage can where people throw in random stuff (problems, solutions, people and opportunities) and decisions just sort of bubble out)
        
        o 4 streams
        
        o Ad hoc, chance, “focusing events”, unstructured, haphazard
        
        o Goals are not known (you do not start with a clear problem and then find best solution, instead, problems, solutions, decision makers are floating around separately: a decision only happens when these three randomly line up)
        
        o No attention for relation causes-consequences, pet solutions
        
        o Problem in one area becomes solution in other
    - - • Forester (1984): range of possible decision-making styles (rather than assuming a single optimum method he emphasises the contextual rationality of administrative and political decisionmaking)
        
        o Requirements for rational decision-making
        
        6 conditions: the better these are met the more likely a rational decision making process is possible
      - Small number of participantssei
      - Simple setting
      - Problem is well-defined
      - Perfect information
      - No urgent situation
- - - - o Intentions precede actions
      - o Goals determine instruments
      - o Instruments determine results
    - - o Focus on evaluation of goal achievement
      - o Identification of implementation ‘gaps’/‘failures’
      - o Remedying problems by redifining goals/instruments
    - - There are no external constraints for the implementing agengy
      - There is enough time and resources
      - At each step of the implementation process
      - The theory behind the policy is plausible
      - There is a direct relation between cause and consequence
      - A single implementing organisation that does not depend on others or dependency is minimal
      - All implementers understand and agree on the objectives, throughout implementation
      - All objectives can be specified in the concrete actions and tasks for all actors
      - Perfect communication and coordination between all actors
      - Authority can be commanded, and perfect obedience obtained
      - Hood (1976): inherent limits to control based on perfect implementation
  - - - o First and only contact of gvt with citizens/orgs
      - o Also make policies!
      - o Often high service ideals
      - o Exercising discretion
      - o Under substantial pressures and loss of control
      - THE DECISIONS OF STREET-LEVEL BUREAUCRATS, THE ROUTINES THEY ESTABLISH, AND THE DEVICES THEY INVENT TO COPE WITH UNCERTAINTIES AND WORK PRESSURES, EFFECTIVELY BECOME THE PUBLIC POLICIES THEY CARRY OUT” (LIPSKY, 1980, XII)
      - Focus on paradoxes of working at the street level:
        
        oppressed, underfunded, low-level <----> Expertise, discretion, autonomy (SLBs may have low status in the system but they wield high discretion)
        
        service delivery and humanity <----> bureaucracy, conditionalities, blame (they try to help people but must often follow rigid procedures and face blame for failures)
    - - • Multi-level + Multi-actor (many actors across levels of gvt. and sectors interact)
      - • Policy goals often vague/conflicting, need for interpretation
      - • Discretion inherent
      - • Ongoing stream of rules, limitations, coping and processing mechanisms
      - • Accountabilities multiple and > hierarchy (SLBs answer to managers, laws, clients and ethics, not just one boss)
      - • Success tied to commitment and capacities of s-l-actors
      - • Coping mechanisms (e.g. prioritising some clients, creating simplification)
      - • Professionalism
  - - - • Policy as rational problem-solving
      - • A ‘quest for control’
      - • Policy-on-paper as technical instruction
    - - • Policy as continued politics
      - • Policy as a message
      - • Professionalism as to be identified in practice
  - - - Hupe: Important are at least the 6c's
        
        o Communication (cf. ‘Policy as a message’)
        
        o Coalitions, Commitment and Capacity (Continued ‘politics’)
        
        o Craftspersonship and Capacity (‘public service professionalism’)
      - Sabatier's 6 conditions of success implementation
        
        o Clear and consistent objectives;
        
        o Adequate causal theory;
        
        o Adequate implementation structure;
        
        o Stabile social-economic contexts;
        
        o Enthusiastic and capable implementers;
        
        o Support of interest groups and elected politicians
  - - - overly rigid
        
        a school follows outdated rules that do not help students anymore
    - - poor adaptation
        
        a hospital does not adjust during a flu epidemic
    - - poor learning
        
        a gvt. does not learn from past disasters
    - - bad values
        
        a police force tolerates racism, even if laws say otherwise
    - - internal power games
        
        departments fight for power instead of working together
    - - stuck thinking
        
        we have always done it this way! refusing to try new things
    - - chaotic change
        
        rapid reforms with no structure make everything worse
    - - oppression
        
        a social policy is used to control or punish the poor rather than help
- - - - “Evaluation can be viewed as a structured process that creates and synthesises information intended to reduce the level of uncertainty for stakeholders about a given programme or policy. It is intended to answer questions or test hypotheses, the results of which are then incorporated into the information bases used by those who have a stake in the programme or policy.” (McDavid & Hawthorn)
      - “Evaluation is the process of systematically determining merit, worth, or significance of something.” (M. Scriven).
        This is a narrow definition bc it does not cover evaluations that seek to go beyond effects or inquire into the factors that shape those effects
  - - - o Evaluation of efforts: inputs
      - o Performance measurement: outputs
      - o Effectiveness evaluation
      - o Efficiency evaluation
      - o Process evaluation
    - - o PPBS (Planning Programming Budgeting System)
      - o Zero-base budgeting
      - o Management by objectives
  - - - policy can be judged successful and continued in present form
        
        policy can be judged wanting in some respect and efforts suggested for its reform
        
        policy can be juged a complete failure (success) leading to the recommendation that it be terminated
    - - • Attention since the 1970s
      - • Kaufmann: “organisations never die”
      - • Bardach: “policy is rarely terminated”
      - • Peters & Hogwood: types of policy change
      - o If you want to know more about what happens after evaluation you need to know more about policy change.
    - - policy innovation (sth new that has never been done)o
        
        Energy Agreement (Denmark, 2012). Fundamental policy shift from fuel and coal energy dependency to renewable energy, and ensuring sustainable development and away from carbon emissions
        
        New policies can introduce novel approaches to solving problems. E.g., new geopolitical challenges and the EU’s policies represent a response to emerging security challenges
      - policy succession (not actuallly changing the goals)
        
        The significant transformation in previous policies, such as the two acts that prohibited discrimination based on social and racial backgrounds, including voting rights and public accommodations in the USA.
        
        USA (Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965))
      - policy maintenance
        
        o EU Common Security and Defence Policy
        
        o Strengthening NATO Relationships
        
        o Trump Tariff (Trade Protectionism) policy
      - policy termination
    - - • On a continuum, termination does occur
        
        extracting target groups
        
        Less investment of money or personnel
      - • On a continuum, innovation does occur
        
        Policy expansion to new target groups or other sectors
        
        new instruments
      - • As ideal types, innovation and termination occur rarely
    - - • Functional policy termination. You take a function away from a government agency.
      - • Organisational policy termination. You cut away an organisation.
      - • Termination of standpoints. Abolish a view.
      - • Ideal-typical policy termination.
      - example: within Trump's administration: ideal policy termination: new view; immigation, defence, etc.
      - BRAKES TO TERMINATION
        
        brakes and reasons:
        
        • Intellectual resistance
        
        psychological: keeping identity
        
        • Lack of political initiative
        
        power: vested interests
        
        • Institutional continuity
        
        bureaucracies are hard to dismantle
        
        • Dynamic conservativism
        
        preference for status quo
        
        • Anti-termination coalitions
        
        groups benefiting from the policy will resist
        
        • Legal obstacles
        
        laws may protect the polict
        
        • High kick-off costs
        
        starting a new programme is expensive
        
        • Unintended consequences
        
        ending a policy can create new problems
        
        • Reluctance and refusal
        
        identity, pride, interests tied to it
    - - Redefine the discourse
      - Termination at the beginning of a legislature or during crisis (if there is no crisis – create one!)
      - Created incentives for termination
      - Make sunset provisions
      - Discredit the anti-termination coalition
      - Choose the weakest
    - - “Learning in policymaking refers to sustainable change in behaviour, which is based on new information” (BAIEGELBAUER 2007, p.232)
        
        “Deliberate attempt to adjust the goals or techniques of policy in response to past experience and new information” (Hall 1993, p.278)
      - instrumental defintion (HALL) = endogenous learning
        
        • Learning in order to better reach objectives.
        
        • Belongs to the formal, normal policy process.
        
        • Attempts to adjust the policy in the light of results of existing policy.
      - learning as an unconscious process (HECLO) = exogenous learning
        
        Continue behavioural change in response to stimuli from the environment.
        
        Reaction to external circumstances.
      - SOCIAL LERANING (HALL): FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD ORDER CHANGE
        
        FIRST: adaptation of instruments - subsidies solar panels
        
        SECOND: choice of new instruments - wind energy instead of solar panels
        
        THIRD: change of underlying objectives and ideas, paradigmatic change (complete change) - independence of fossil fuels