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Institutions and Policy of the European Union - Coggle Diagram
Institutions and Policy of the European Union
Introduction
Actors of the EU
Council of the European Union
European Council
European Commission
European Parliament
European Union External Action
European Central Bank
European Court of Auditors
CVRIA
European Economic and Social Committee
FRA, EEA, ECR, etc.
What is the EU?
Sui generis:
'de su propio género/especie': we don't have a noun to comfortably describe the EU
State (legal and physical entity):
has authority over that territory
legally and politically independent
recognised by its people and by other States
operates within fixed populated territory
Confederation
Regional institutions: authorise to coordinate the making of new rules and regulations to which their members are subject (work is restricted)
Intergovernmentalism
stanley hoffman: integration moves forward as a result of intergovernmental bargains. EU as a meeting place in which representatives of MS negotiate with each other. National governments as main players.
liberal
intergovernmentalism: andrew moravcsik: integration as a series of rational choices made by national leaders:
three stages
: national preference formation; interstate bargaining; institutional choice.
Integration: involves the surrender, transfer, pooling of sovereignty
Supranationalism
(Multi-level Governance)
International organisation
Political system
Federalism: idea that states had lost their political rights because they could not guarantee the safety of their citizens
(Neo)Functionalism: David Mitrany: nationalism is a root of conflicy
Sneak up on peace by promoting integration
Haas and Lindberg (neofunctionalism)
Spillover: cooperation in one sphere leads to cooperation in other spheres: functional, technical, political
"a given action, related to a specific goal, creates a situation in which the original goal can be assured only by taking further actions, which in turn can create further condition and need for more action"
System of European Law: part of what makes the EU state. Coexist with national systems protected by ECOJ
What is a state?
a legal and physical entity that:
operates wihtin a fixed and populated territory;
has authority over that territory;
is legally and politically independent;
is recognised by its people and by other states
Is the EU a state? Yes and No.
What is an international organisation?
bodies that promote voluntary cooperation and coordination between or among their members but have neither autonomous powers nor the authority to impose their rulings on their members
intergovernmental organisations (IGOs)
: (specific type of IO) organisations with at least three state parties, a permanent headquarters or secretariat, as well as regular meetings and budgets. Exampoles: UN, NATO, ASEAN, MERCOSUR. Growing number of IGOs.
All criteria fulfilled but EU exceeds each of criteria compared to other IGOs.
What is a political system?
stable and clearly defined set of institutions for collective decision-making and set of rules governing relations between and within these institutions
citizens seek to realise their political desires through the political system
collective decisions in the political system have a significant impact on the distribution of economic resources and the allocation of values across the whole system
continuous interaction between these politics outputs, new demands on the system, new decisions, etc.
Government vs (MultiLevel) Governance
Government: formal instiutions with authority to make laws
Governance: broader, includes informal actors and processes
Multilevel Governance (MLG): shared power across multiple levels (EU, national, local)
Federalism vs. Confederalism:
EU fits elements of both but not fully either
Federalism:
shared between central and states
strong central government
direct (elections e.g.)
Confederalism:
states retain most power
weak central government
indirect (through states)
INTEGRATION*
transfer of sovereignty in some areas;
creation of common institutions;
not total loss of national power
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
URSULA VON DER LEYEN
executive-bureaucratic arm of the EU.
Responsabilities
:
generating new laws and policies (90% of proposals become law)
overseeing implementation
managing the EU budget and finances
representing the EU in IR
promoting the interests of the EU as a whole (external representative)
Composition and Structure
President of the Commission
Elected for renewable 5-year terms
TASKS
: distributes portfolios, chairs college meetings, represents the Commission and the EU, drives EU integration
College of Commissioners: President + 26 commissioners (1 per Member State)
not national representatives, but independent EU officials
5 year renewable terms
each commissioner has a cabinet, with a chef the cabinet to prepare college meeting
Portfolios
:
Kaja Kallas: High Representative for Foreign Affairs
Teresa Ribera: Clean Transition
Andrius Kubilius: Defence and Space (1st ever)
weekly meetings held on wednesdays
APPOINTMENT OF COMMISSION PRES. AND COMMISSIONERS
President: proposed by European Council: QMV, elected by European Parliament
Commissioners: nominated by MS, approved by EP and Council
Approval of Commission:
EP may hold hearings to test and challenge nominees
full college can be removed by motion of censure in EP. individually only by president COJ
Directorates-General (DGs): over 30, policy-specific departments
function like national ministries;
responsible for drafting laws, implementation, research, translation,etc.
staff includes officials, national experts, and support staff with nationality balance
Secretariat-General: coordinates internal operations
coordinates and oversees all Commission activities
led by
Ilze Juhansone
chairs meetings, coordinates DGs, liaises with other institutions
Network of Committees: advisory and regulatory
comitology (advisory, management, regulatory) - MS officials
expert committees: specialists from national governments
consultative committees: sectoral experts and stakeholders
POWERS
IMPLEMENTATION
ensures EU law is implemented by Member States
monitors progress via national reports, stakeholders, and civil society
can take enforcement actions: fines, fund freezing, infringement procedures
INITIATION
only the Commission can initiate EU legislation
process involves:
drafting in DGs
internal and external consultations
review by Legal Service
Approval by the College before submission to EP and Council
OF THE PURSE (budget and finance)
manages EU's revenue collection and spending
drafts and administers the MFF
coordinates economic policies though Eurpean Semester
EXTERNAL RELATIONS
represents the EU in global organisations (UN, WTO, NATO)
conducts trade negotiations and oversees foreign aid and enlargement
EU has 160+ diplomatic missions and 140+ delegations worldwide (EEAS and Commission staff)
COUNCILS
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
Structure
Council formations
(also: configurations)
10 different depending on topic (
general affairs council
most important)
meetings among ministers (number differs across configurations)
Permanent representations
: every MS has a PermRep to the EU in Brussels
COREPER is where these permanent representatives meet
COREPER (Committee of Permanent Representatives)
I: deputy permanent representatives, 6 council configurations
II: permanent representatives, 4 CC
Working parties
: 150 working groups with national officials and experts
Rotating presidency
held by one EU Member State every 6 months
organises meetings, promotes cooperation, mediates negotiations
CURRENT
: Poland: motto: security, Europe! (until 30 June 2025)
Trio Presidencies:
group of 3 countries sharing a 18month agenda to ensure continuity of Council leadership
THEMES
: strong and secure Europe, prosperous and competitive Europe, free and democratic Europe
General Secretariat
: Secretary General and 3000 staff supporting the Council and European Council
TASKS: legal and policy advice, meeting prep, records, budget, continuity
Responsibilities
legislative power (with European Parliament)
promotion of EU's foreign policy (CFSP)
international treaty work with EC
EU budget approval with EP
Voting
SIMPLE MAJORITY: minor procedural issues
QUALIFIED MAJORITY (QMV): 55% of MS representing 65% of EU population
EUROPEAN COUNCIL
ROLE: sets EU's overall political direction and priorities
no legislative power (art.15 TEU)
Membership
27 Heads of state/government,
president of the European Council and Commission
also: HR/VP (when foreign affairs), EP president, external guests (e.g. Zelenskyy)
Presidency
elected by QVM for 2.5 years (renewable once)
must not hold nationall office
current president (2024-29):
ANTÓNIO COSTA
TASKS
chairs meetings, drives European Council's work, prepares meetings, represesnts EU externally
Meetings
regular (4 per year), plus ad hoc/special summits
1-2 day meetings, focus on consensus building
high flexibility and informality
Voting
unanimity for sensitive issues (foreign policy)
QMV and simple majority for others
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT
only directly elected body of the EU, representing EU citizens and functioning as legislative authority
federal, consensus-based system rather than a majoritarian/centralised
EP seeks broad agreement to ensure durable decisions (not about 51% rule)
Structure
720 MEPs (6-96 MEPs per country, degressive proportionality
President: Roberta Metsola: represents the EP externally and signs off on the final EU budget
MEPs grouped by political affiliation, not nationality
Secretary General: leads administration, monopoly on initiative within EP bureaucracy
Committees: core legislative work, each has rapporteurs, experts, and political balance
administrative pyramid: general directors, unit heads, MEP assistants
3 main roles
legislative
passes EU laws with the Council, based on proposals from Commission
decides on internal agreements and enlargements
review Commission's work, request new legislation
supervisory
democratic oversight of EU institutions
elects the Commission President and approves Commission
can pass a vote of no confidence (motion of censure) against Commission
approves EU budget spending
examines citizens petitions, observes elections, etc.
budgetary
shares responsibility for creating and approving EU budget with Council
approves EU's MFF
How it works
committees
: 20 + 3 subcommittees prepare legislation. MEPs review proposals, submit amendments, debate within political groups
plenary session
: held monthly in
Strasbourg
where MEPs vote on legislation
European identity: the EP must promote to enable shared responsiblity; also
political coordination
between parties
Institutional balance
Committee of the Regions (CoR)
329 part-time members, appointed by Council on proposal from national governments
represents local and regional interests (e.g. mayors, city councillors)
grouped by political affiliation; meets in plenary 5-6 times/year
advisory role: mandatory consultation on areas like social/economic cohesion
European Economic and Social Committee (EESC)
329 members, part-time, divided into: employers (group I), workers (group ii), civil society (group iii)
appointed for 5-year terms by Council
mandatory consultation on social/labour matters; 170+ opinions annually
holds 9 plenaries/year + section meetings
EEAS
Created 2011; HG in Brussels + global EU delegations
Implements EU's foreign and security policy
Organised by regions (e.g. MENA, Asia) and topics (e.g. human rights, climate)
Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU)
Judicial arm: interprets EU treaties, resolves disputes among institutions, states and individuals
Based in Luxembourg; two courts: handles:
preliminary rulings, treaty violations, annulment actions, appeals
Court of Justice: 27 judges, 11 advocates-general (they review each of the cases as they come in, study arguments, deliver preliminary opinions, etc.)
General Court: 54 judges
European Central Bank (ECB)
Founded in 1998; based in Frankfurt am Main with +/- 5000 staff
Ensures price stability and oversees the eurozone banking system
Active in public education (video, podcasts)
Structure:
Governing Council
Executive Board (President, VP, +4 other)
General Council
European Court of Auditors (ECA)
EU FINANCIAL WATCHDOG
Based in Luxembourg (est. 1977)
Annual Audits EU spending; ensures proper revenue/expenditure
One auditor per MS; 6-year renewable terms
European Investment Bank (EIB)
Founded in 1958; HQ in Luxembourg
Finances sustainable projects inside and outside the EU
Example: transport in Athens, agribusiness in Malawi
Other Agencies
: specialised bodies like: EUROPOL, FRONTEX, European Environment Agency, ACER, FRA (EU Agency for Fundamental Rights), OSHA, European Defence Agency
INSTITUTIONAL BALANCE
Definition
: a foundational EU principle requiring institutions to act within their treaty-based powersl. It prevents one institution from overstepping (established by Meroni case, 1958). Enforced by the CJEU.
Key institutions involved
:
European Commission (proposes laws)
European Parliament (co-legislates, supervises; also has gained co-decision and budgetary powers)
Council of the EU (co-legislated, represents MS)
Every EU institution has distinct features and interacts with other institutions in different ways, subject to evolution over time: interactions are thus diverse and depend on selection, policymaking, control powers.
Fundamentals of EU Policymaking
Sources of EU law
Primary law
: Treaties (e.g. TEU, TFEU)
Secondary law
: Regulations, directives, decisions
Other sources: international law, CJEU case law
Types of EU law /output
regulations: binding, directly applicable, usually narrow in scope
directives: binding, outlining general policy goals
decisions: binding, usually specfic, administrative nature
recs and opinions: not binding, interpretation on regulations/similar
green and white papers: discussion on specific policy areas; official proposals for Community policies and actions
Four principles of EU law (ART.5 TEU)
Conferral
: EU only acts within powers given by treaties
Subsidiarity
: EU acts only when objectives cannot be achieved at national level
Proportionality
: EU action must be limited to what is necessary
Competence categories
: - exclusive: e.g. customs union, trade (Art. 3 TFEU) - shared: e.g. environment, energy (Art. 4 TFEU) - supporting: e.g. culture, education (Art. 6 TFEU)
EU-decisionmaking procedures
OLP
most common method;
joint decision by EP and Council based on Commission proposal;
up to 3 readings + possible conciliation
Consent procedure
EP can accept/reject, but not amend;
used for treaty ratifications, accession, fundamental rights
Consultation procedure
Council must consult EP (and sometimes EESC/CoR)
Council may ignore the opinion
Others: budgetary procedure, open method of coordination, foreign policymaking, etc.
THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
Composed of ministers from EU Member States
Ministers assemble by policy domain (e.g. agriculture, finance, etc.)
Key functions
:
Legislates with the European Parliament
Coordinates policies across EU countries
Develops foreign and security policy
Signs international agreements
Adopts the EU budget
EU Agricultural Policy
History and Evolution
Created in the Treaty of Rome (1957) as
CAP
Objectives (Art.39)
:
increase productivity;
ensure fair income for farmers;
stabilise markets;
guarantee food supply;
reasonable prices for consumers;
Early Implementation:
Special Committee on Agriculture (1960)
Full CAP launch (1962-1968)
Challenges and reforms: overproduction, high costs, trade tension, environmental harm.
MacSharry Reform (1992): reduced guaranteed prices, introduced direct income support, added agri-environmental measures
Agenda 2000
: - decoupled support from production
introduced cross-compliance
created two pillars: income support and market measures, rural development
POST-2020 (23-27)
:
one strategic plan per MS
flexibility for national implementation
shift from compliance to performance
DecisionMaking process
Internal Structure
Working parties: technical experts
COREPER I/II: deputy permanent representatives
Special Committee on Agriculture (SCA): agricultural attachés
Council formation (Agriculture): agriculture ministers; top decisionmaking group ministers from each EU country meet and vote a final decision
Belgium in the Council
Competence Split
Regions handle agriculture (CAP)
Federal level deals with
food safety
standards (partially)
plan/animal health
Representation
Permanent Representation of Belgium to the EU (functions like an embassy)
includes regional and domain-specific attachés
coordination between regional and federal authorities via
Cooperation Agreement
(1994)
in foro interno, in foro externo
regions manage the external dimension of internal competences
established in Maastricht Treaty (1992) and formalised in 1994 agreement
Key representatives
Peter Moors
: Permanent Representative
Bert Versmessen
: Deputy Rep.
Gaëtan Poelman
: Flanders Rep.
Beligum Coordination of EU Policy
Before Council meetings:
preparations in working groups
stakeholder consultation
internal coordination of Belgian position
During Council meetings:
minister participation supported by team
real-time negotiation, reporting, and position defence
deputies may step in if needed
After Council Meetings:
:
follow-up reporting and communication
PRESIDENCY
Rotates every six months (once every 13.5 years)
Trio format
Role
:
chairs meetings and working groups
acts as honest broker among 27 member states
represents Council in negotiations with EP and Commission
can set own priorities
BELGIUM'S 2024 PRESIDENCY
13TH Time (Jan-June 24)
Part of Trio Spain and Hungary
530 informal + 2000 formal meetings
67 legislative files completed
EU CLIMATE POLICY AND THE GREEN DEAL
Climate change impact is
visible
water scarcity affects all European regions
health crisis: 1 in 10 premature deaths linked to pollution
18% cardiovascular diseases and 10% cancers related to environment
238000 annual premature deaths from particulate matter
95 million exposed to harmful road noise
Interconnected Challenges
climate change
pollution
biodiversity loss
A
circular
economy in which raw materials are used more efficiently
Green economy example
: An economy where natural capital is valued more:
Great Barrier Reef, Australia
EUROPEAN GREEN DEAL
(2019)
make Europe first climate-neutral continent by 2050
strategy for economic growth and environmental transformation
OBJECTIVES
raise climate ambition (2030: -55% GHG emissions vs. 1990)
zero pollution: toxic-free environment
clean energy that's affordable and secure
circular economy: reduce waste, increase raw material efficiency
build and renovate efficiently
restore ecosystems and protect biodiversity
farm to fork: sustainable, fair food systems
shift to sustainable and smart mobility
Implementation and Results as of 2024
Policy Achievements
numerous legislative initiatives adopted, ongoing, planned across:
climate and energy
circular economy
zero pollution
biodiversity and agriculture
Key Pogram: Fit for 55
raises the 2030 reduction target from 40% to 55% (vs. 1990)
includes reforms to the Emission Trading System (ETS)
Challenges in Execution
balancing social and environmental goals:
regional inequalities
industrial sector disruption
greater burden on vulnerable communities
POLITICAL CONTEXT
: Green Deal's future
political shifts
EP: movement to the radical right post-election
increased polarisation and resistance to green policies
NEW
EU leadership
Commission President: Ursula von der Leyen (EPP)
European Council President: Antonio Costa (S&D)
Foreign Affaris High Representative: Kaja Kllas (Renew)
Commission
2024-29 key climate figures
Teresa Ribera: EVP for Clean, Just and Competitive Transition
Wopke Hoekstra: Climate, Net Zero, Clean Growth
Jessika Roswall: Environment, Water Resilience, Circular Economy
Dan Jorgensen: Energy and Housing
New College of Commissioners took office 1 Dec 2024
STRATEGIC REPORTS
shaping the new green agenda
Single Market (Letta Report) - April 2024
Future of Agriculture - Sept 2024 (Prof. Strohschneider)
Competitiveness (Draghi) - Sept 2024
EU Civilian and Defence Preparedness (Niinistö) - Oct 2024
17 Sept 2024: Mission letter by von der Leyen defines strategic climate roles
Looking ahead
Need for investment: sustaining climate action requires mobilising public and private investment
New socio-political reality: Green Deal must work now within a more challenging and fragmented political climate (quick transitions still possible)
SECURITY AND TRANSATLANTIC RELATIONS
Historical Context
1991/03: Maastricht Treaty: Created the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)
1999: Cologne European Council: Laid foundations for the CSDP
2003: EU Security Strategy
2007/09: Lisbon Treaty: strengthened the EU's security framework
2016: EU Global Strategy
2022: Strategic Compass: streategic orientation in response to recent threats
Previous Security Frameworks: NATO, WEU (now defunct), EU (increasing ambitions in autonomous security capacity)
Legal basis of EU security and defence
Article 42 TEU
: defines Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) as part of CFSP
Establishes:
EU-led missions
Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO)
Mutual Assistance Clause (42.7) - EU's equivalent to NATO's Art. 5
Article 43 TEU
: lists types of missions:
joint disarment
humanitarian/rescue operations
military training/advice
conflict prevention and peacekeeping
crisis management/peacemaking
KEY EU SECURITY ACTORS
European Council
sets strategic direction of CSDP (all decisions by unanimity)
Council of the EU (Foreign Affairs Council)
made up of Foreign/Defence Ministers
adopts mission mandates and policies
also operates on unanimity
High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy
chairs Foreign Affairs Council
coordinates policy, proposes initiatives
ensures coherence between CSDP and other EU policies
Commission
manages funding, programmes
supports defence industry
proposes defence industry
proposes relevant legislation
ensures coherence with other EU policies
Beyond Missions: broader tools and strategies
European Peace Facility: external support for partner countries
PESCO, CARD, EDF: cooperation and funding for EU defence capabilities
Strategic documents: EU Global Strategy, Strategic Compass
Expanded security concept: includes economic security, supply chains, cybersecurity
CASE STUDY: UKRAINE AND TRUMP II
EU response to Ukraine war
extensive support via European Peace Facility, humanitarian aid, sanctions
military and financial assistance, unprecedented unity among EU members
Uncertainty with possible Trump presidency (II)
potential weakened NATO commitment
pressures EU to enhance strategic autonomy
reinforces the need for a credible and cohesive CSDP
COURSE CONCLUSIONS
""The EU is a distinct political arrangement that defies easy categorisation": not a state but more than a simple IO: unique structure combining sovereignty sharing and supranational decision-making
EU remains a
historic success story
