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How can we assess Juntos' impact on indigenous households long term…
How can we assess Juntos' impact on indigenous households long term social reproduction in Peru?
Bourdieu: There are no true Meritocracies because of inherited capitals; redistribution would be necessary; education alone does not enable upward social mobility - challenges narrow human capital theory
Ferguson: arguing for redistribution
argues that the obsession with production and wage labor as the source of all value is outdated and harmful, particularly in contexts of mass unemployment and economic precarity
argues that direct cash transfers can be legitimate and effective policy tools rather than creating "dependency"
rethinking value and distribution: distributive processes are already central to how societies function and should be recognized as legitimate rather than stigmatized
"just giving money to the poor" deserves serious consideration as a development and social policy strategy
suggests universal basic income policies
Critical Assessment (by Ethnographic studies)
Aste, Roopnaraine and Margolies (2018):
how indigenous people in Peru (Amazonas and Andes) perceive Juntos
highlight unofficial conditionalities and the perception of the cash transfer being a gift from the state creating a relationship of reciprocity (refer to Mauss)
improvements in nutrition
Pasquier-Doumer and Brandon (2015): analyse the mechanisms underlying exclusion process of indigenous people in Peru; role of aspirations in educational investment; rely on the Young Lives dataset
findings:
indigenous children do not limit their aspirations due to internalised racist perceptions about thier opportunities, when compared to non-indigenous children with the same socio-economic background
BUT the socioeconomic status predicts the level of aspiration which in turn impacts progress in language acquisition
so a better socioeconomic position would enhance aspirations
Paredes and Thorp (2010):
critical assessment of ethnicity and how inequalities persist through ethnicity and the role of education in that
highlight that "indigenous" is not a clear category and that identities are complex and fluid, depend on the environment and not so much on the language according to them
gendered impact
human capital, education and ethnicity very well discussed
education is not likely to make a difference if it only increases quantity, the quality is what matters
Cookson (2016):
Three core elements emerge about womenrecipients’ experiences of Juntos.
First, in order to meet programme conditions,women confront scarce and poor-quality health and education services.
Second,to access the services and cash incentive that are meant to promote socialinclusion, women walk and wait in ways that reflect and reinforce theirexclusion.
Third, through shadow conditionalities, Juntos women engage intime-burdensome activities that may be stigmatizing or trivial, confront discrimination from urban professionals, and risk bodily harm (in pursuing facility baseddelivery).
Ethnographic work about how indigenous women experience Juntos
Conditional aspects of Juntos as creating new moments of exclusion instead of the claimed inclusion
Cookson (2018):
Theory behind CCTs: building peoples human capital in order to lift them out of poverty (human capital theory)
Mincer, Schultz, Becker about human capital theory
Is it really an increased income that enables indigenous families to get out of poverty? Or is it their "improved" human capital (through education)? Or might it be a combination of both? What insights do Ethnographies give us to assess the process through which Juntos tries to lift families out of poverty?
What do Ethnographies tell us about the relationship of increased regular income and investing in human capital; what effects does it have on indigenous households?
How might ethnographic studies challenge the human capital approach of CCTs and how does this relate to Bourdieu's concepts of capitals?
Sen "capability approach": moving beyond human capital theory's productivist framework to recognize that cash transfers should be evaluated not just for their impact on human capital development, but for their broader contribution to expanding people's real freedoms and opportunities to live lives they have reason to value
Education Inequalities & Language
Cueto et al. (2012):
despite many indigenous languages, spanish is the dominant one
highest proportion of indigenous households in rural areas, especially the Andes
rural areas are poorly connected and lack electricity, running water etc
indigenous language speaker are more likely to be poor than spanish speakers
gap favoring spanish speakers remains wide
significant quality gap in primary schools
implementation failure of bilingual programm
Gaentsch and Zapata-Román (2020) (UNRSID Working Paper): analyses the socio-economic determinants of access to higher education and its stratification along income, ethnic, geographic and gender divides
education reforms have contributed to a high heterogeneity in terms of quality and prestige between different types of universities
Human Capital Theory: inegalitarian systems can arise because of individual costs of education being higher for students from disadvantaged backgrounds, or/and, the expected benefits are often lower for disadvantaged students - these two factors decrease the rate of return to education for students from disadvantaged backgrounds, leading to less investment and early dropout = explains why inegalitarian education systems reinforce income inequality by disadvantaging students from low-income households
Inequality of opportunity: proposes that unequal outcomes between individuals may not be a reflection of fair rewards to efforts because starting positions were different; in a case of perfect equality of opportunity, educational achievements should not depend on circumstances such as parental background
education reforms in Peru and some numbers
level of parental education remains a strong predictor for whether children enter the vocational or university system, children from highly educated parents are more likely to have the financial means for costly privare education, while entering VET or the labour market are preferred options for those that lack financial means
findings:
access to institutions of higher education is strongly associated with parental education; educational achievements transmits across generations, relative persistence particularly at the top and at the bottom; indigenous background and living in rural areas play an important role in educational attainment
circumstances not only affect access in general, but also determine the type of educational institution one enters; differences based on ethnic background are stronger than gender biases
university education yields very high returns in labour markets, but these vary according to parental education, gender and ethnic background
Artega and Glewwe (2019):
there is an achievement gap between indigenous and non-indigenous children in Peru
educational attainment depends highly on parental education plis wealth, nutrition and educational expenditures
indigenous children learn less in schools bc they are not tought in their maternal tongue and seem to be neglected by teachers
Glewwe et al. (2017):
gap in schools between how much children learn
what insights different studies give, against a simplistic human capital ideology, it is more complicated; many factors shaping long lerm social reproduction (?) like income, education, and aspirations which are more shaped by the socioeconomic background than internalised racial perseptions
"Effects" of Juntos
Jones et al. (2008):
most poor live in rural areas
process of targeting: problems of leakage as well as under-coverage of families
ppl lacked requisite information to fill out questionaire
initial problems have been addressed
community power relations impact speaking out about who should be excluded
initial skepticism, but general positive consensus, "God's grace to the poor"
-school attendance increased significantly; childrens time use changed, women make up for lost work; parents more involved in children's education
increase in vaccinations, health clinit visits, reducing home births, more high-protein foods
"helped to improve participating household livelihood security to some degree"BUT "size of the cash transfer has definite limitations" especially for families with multiple children
"in general, men were then participating in activities previously seen as exclusively female (cooking, cleaning, washing), in some cases reduction of domestic violence
sense of division among children as well as among some women, sense of exclusion of those not in Juntos
in some communities solidarity, seeking to share
not enough priority to acquisition and application of practical health knowledge
increased demand for services resulted in poorer quality
gendered impact - Molyneux: re-traditionalizing gender roles and responsibilities
relation between beneficiaries and the state, as entitlements/rights - long-term aim is to change paternalistic relationship and present access to basic services for children as joint responsibility of both parents and the state
Perova and Vakis (2012)
quantitative study
reduced poverty, increased consumption by 15% (which is comparably low in comparison with other CCTs)
cash transfer is comparably little in comparison to other CCTs
increased utilization of health services; but not less likely to fall sick
positive effects but not significant in comparison with non-beneficiaries
Gaentzsch (2020):
consistent with Perova and Vakis (2012) - no impact on enrollment in primary school
more negative results in younger cohort point towards bad supply and infrastructure
supports findings from other CCTs that they have a positive impact upon school participation of secondary school-aged children that may be at risk of dropping out
did not found any evidence for improved learning outcomes that may result from higher school participation, further research needed
too early to assess impact on after secondary school
study does not address heterogeneous effects that may differ between different families like ethnicity or family size
they cannot determine whether any positive effects are primarily due to a shift in the budget constraint (the transfer) or to a decrease in the opportunity cost of schooling (the conditionality)
Jin and Ball (2020) - Meritocracy in China
meritocracy reinforces class domination
"merit" is not an inherent personal quality but a set of social produced capabilities underpinned by capitals of different sorts
Page and Pande: Poverty is more than a lack of income and, thus, people need more than cash to get out of poverty; concept of "invisible infrastructure" that is needed