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European Integration since 1945 - Coggle Diagram
European Integration since 1945
Why is there no European army yet?
The Cold War
WWII
1939:
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
: Germany and Soviet Union sign a non-agression pact (they divide territories that lay between them): Invasion of Poland:
WWII
Winston Churchill new Prime Minister
Operation Barbarossa 1941: Germany invades Soviet Union
Atlantic Charter (UK and US)
Normandy Landings
German Surrender: Victory in
Europe Day
1946: Iron Curtain descends
Paul Henri Spaak Speech
Nous avons peur
Berlin Blockade 2948-49: cutting off of land an river transit between West and East Germany
Treaty of Washington
: NATO (4 April1949)
In reaction
: Warsaw Pact of the Soviet Uniona and communist countries
COLD WAR INSTITUTIONALISED
Pan-Europa
Count Richard von Coundenhove-Kalergi: pan-European movement 1923: economic cooperation in ore, coal, mining:
United States of Europe
Aristide Briand:
KELLOG-BRIAND PACT
(1927): multilateralpact signed by major powers of the world
French-German rapprochement
Franco-Prussian War 1870-71; World Wars
Party political networks
Christian Democrat politicians: SECRET MEETINGS (Genfer Kreis):
KONRAD ADENAUER
and
ROBERT SCHUMAN
Nouvelles Équipes Internationales and Mouvement Socialiste pour les États-Unis d'Europe (democratic versus socialists)
Winston Churchill
: important political personality: in favour of trans-Atlantic alliance and collaboration between France and UK. Pioneer of European integration (
Speech at Zürich
)
BENELUX:
Belgium, The Netherlands, Luxembourg
BLEU(Belgium and Lux.): single currency and customs union:
1944
: Benelux estalbished; Benelux
Treaty
1948
First time after WWII that 3 sovereign states decide to work together in specific sectors
Attempt of Fritalux
MARSHALL PLAN
Churchill coined the Iron Curtain in 1946
Demilitarisation of the USA vs.Stalin having troops less than 500 km from Brussels
Marshall Pan: relief package, large recovery programme from Central and Western Europe
Own interest of USA (debt repayment and export of consumer goods)
Administrative Headquarters in Paris (Château de la Muette) turn into:
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development
(OECD)
Council of Europe
Congress of the Hague
(1948)
demonstrate existence of a body of public opinion in support of European unity in all free European countries
discuss the challenges posed by European unity and propose practical solutions to governments
give new impetus to the international publicity campaign
Eventually Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, UK, Sweden agree to the creation of
Council of Europe
(Formalised with Treaty of
London
) 1949
Supranational Assembly but committee of ministers remains intergovernmental affair
EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
: European Convention on Human Rights 1950
Schuman Declaration
French-German rivalry:
Monnet
proposes to have France and Germany collaborate in domains of coal and steel
Minister of Foreign Affairs
Robert Schuman
studies his proposal: 9th May 1950 in Paris: invites European powers for new international organisation
Chancellor
Konrad Adenauer
likes his proposal and is convinced that European integration is the only way to be strong against Soviet Union
1951
: Treaty of Paris:
Establishing the ECSC
Valid for 50 years
High Authority
Common Assembly
Special Council of Ministers
Court of Justice
Re-arming Germany
France and UK become military allies in
1947
through
Treaty of Dunkirk
; Benelux joins a year later:
WESTERN EUROPEAN UNION
(1948-2010)
Minister of Defence René Pleven: plan to embed German troops into an European army:
EUROPEAN DEFENCE COMMUNITY
(1952) ratified by 6 MS.
Charles de Gaulle enters French parliament (1951): ratification of the EDC fails and initiative fades into obscurity, West Germany into NATO: momentum to create a European army
LOST
European Defence
Élysée Treaty of 1963 does not live to expectations
Franco-German military brigade:
update
: Eurocorops in the framework of NATO
Maastricht Treaty 1993 acknowledges the
WEU as military arm of EU
Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)
European Rapid Operational
Force (France, Italy, Spain, Portugal; 1995)
carrying out the tasks set in the
Petersberg Declaration
: infused into the Treaty of Amsterdam
European Defence Agengy (EDA) formed two years after twin towers attack
Treaty of Lisbon (2009): two articles:
mutual defence clause (obliged to provide assistance) and solidarity clause (can be invoked when one state's own capacities have been overwhelmed in the event of territorist attacks or manmade disaster
New projects: European Defence Fund; European Defence Industrial Development Programme (EDIDP), CARD (framework in which MS review each others defence plans); European Air Transport Command (EATC) and Strategic Command.
WAR IN UKRAINE: European Peace Facility (since 2021) to release funds to finance arms and other equipment
Why is the single market never fully realised?
Distrust
Benelux Memorandum
: Benelux countries try to bring other three MS on board.
Spaak sets up a committee in which 6 MS exchange ideas and invites UK as observing member
Spaak Report
presented at IGC in Venice: October 1956 Bonn and Paris agree that the French protectorate will form the tenth federal state of the West German Republic: France and Germany more than ever of one mind.
25 MARCH 1957: Ministers of Foreign Affairs gather to: Treaties of Rome:
EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY
(EEC) AND
EUROPEAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMUNITY
(EURATOM): enter into force on 1 January 1958.
EEC: to create a single market based on the principle of free movement of goods, services, capital and people. Takes 12 years to achieve this since at first to move from stage to stage it is required
unanimity
but after the 8th year: qualified majorty
consequence of removal of barriers:
COMMON EXTERNAL TRADE POLICY
and
COMPETITION POLICY
creation of
European Social Fund
From the moment common market created to guarantee a level playing field between participating nations:
Common Transport Policy
Common Commercial Policy
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP
)
European Development Fund
set up as well to guarantee African markets economic access to Europe and align diverging financial aid for African countries with contributions from al MS. Relations renewed at the Yaoundé Convention 1963
Jean Charles Snoy et d'Oppuers
: close aide and friend of
Spaak
(main protagonist leading the negotiations and prime minister of Belgium by then), becoming one of the co-writers of the Treaties of Rome (He later became the First Permanent Representative of Belgium to the EEC)
Shift in the balance of power
Common Assembly (European Parliament as of 1962)
Court of Justice
European Commission: emerges as main institution
Council of Ministers: heart of decision-making process
each member holds voting power relative to its size
advisory European Economic and Social Committee
committee of permanent representatives of various MS:
COREPER
LANDMARK CASES
Van Gend en Loos (1960): direct effect
Costa v. ENEL (1964): primacy of European law
Cassis de Dijon (1979): mutual recognition
Empty Chair Crisis
Charles de Gaulle French President is worried by the prospect of his country having to swear fealty to a superior European order.
After crisis UK will formally request accession (if you cannot beat them, join them), but Gaulle distrusts British participation for multiple reasons (Trojan horse concealing American influence):
veto
merely a week after:
Élysée Treaty
between Charles and Adenauer to cast aside history of rivalry and wars (both had a common enemy and wanted to expand their friendship past their enemy) (Aachen Treaty as 56th anniversary of this treaty Merkel and Macron)
UK vetoed again from entering, now with Harold Wilson from Labour Party, not until Charles dies that path is cleared.
Accedes to EEC on 1 January 1973
with Denmark and Ireland (Norway rejects by a referendum)
Walter Hallstein
as Commission president wants to fatten the European pot thorugh European income generated by agriculture and customs on industrial goods (he will build common market and push for European integration)
Charles does not like his proposals, which are submitted in Strasbourg, MS do not come to an accord and Gaulle explotes and
orders everyone including permanent French representatives in Brussels, home and refuses to set foot in any EEC building for seven months
SOLUTION
:
Luxembourg Compormise
1966: States agree to resume operations on the basis of qualified majority unless one or more MS deems the topic of vital national interest (agree to disagree)
Illusion of fulfilment
permanent negative character: a vast and dense multitude of national legislation is annulled and replaced by a single European regulation, regulations that are never ending, explaining the continuous attempts to complete a single market over following decades.
market integration is more like a process or journey without an end
seeking economies of scale and cross-border traffic
new technologies and innovations
Articifial Intelligence Act: making first rules for AI in the world
Why do the British want to set their own course?
Kick-off
Summit of The Hague
(1-2 December 1969)
New French-German Tandem: Pompidou (French) - Brandt (Germany)
Programme for the
completion, reinforcement and enlargement
of the Communities
Dutch Council Presidency so MS are keen to rekindle the process of European integration
European Political Cooperation (EPC)
under Éttiene Davignon leadership: forming the basis of a common, intergovernmental European foreign policy
Accession of four candidate counties UK/DK/Ireland and Noway which in a referendum will decide otherwise
A single currency within ten years
Prime Minister of Luxembourg Pierre Werner:
Werner Report
: three step plan for economic and budgetary cooperation within ten years is approved in March 1971
European Monetary System (EMS)
: includes an exchange rate regime based on a European currency unit (preecessor to the euro)
Yes to Europe
Enlargement 1973
1952-1973: ECSC/EEC/EURATOM 6 founding MS
1970-73: negotiations accession UK, Ireland, Denmark and Norway mainly because of economic (internal market). Divisions between Conservatives and Labour (British accession)
Margaret Thatcher
Yes to Europe Conservative Party: referedum 1975: 62% yes
5 JUNE 1975 UK REFERENDUM: was a public vote that took place on whether the UK should remain a member of the European Communities
Characteristics
:
Initiative Labour government, consultative but politically binding, government divided (labour/conservatives), 1st UK referendum, turn-out 64%, yes 67,2%
Towards a European Union
new Franco-German: Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and Chancellor Helmut Schmidt
Summit of Paris (December 1974): creation of
European Council
for heads of state/governments to convene more frequently (1975)
European Parliament
also on the verge of metamorphosis given the enlargement: direct elections (Treaty of Luxembourg 1970 and of Brussels 1975 give the Parliament influential role and more powers).
European Court of Auditors also established
Tindemans Report
Paris Summit (1974): report on the future of the EU. Tindemans presents a host of policy recommendations in different areas: report put on a shelf to collect dust.
The long 1970s
period 1969-1984: from the resignation of Gaulle until Commission President Delors (so called eurosclerosis sets in)
Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990) period in which she was prime minister
Single European Act (1986) strenghten market process ending the period of eurosclerosis(Treaty of Maastricht 1991: one foot out of the door, UK is in but doesn't want to participate in the single currency)
Brexit Calendar Main Events
23/06/16
: in/out referendum (which turned out to be majority of 51.9% vote to leave.
29/3/17
: notification art. 50 TEU
24/12/19
: exit deal (withdrawal agreement) UK-EU including Northern Ireland
31/1/20
: BREXIT DAY
1/02/20
: EU27
1/1/21
Trade and Cooperation Agreement
27/2/23
Windsor Framework (a post-Brexit legal agreement between UK and EU which adjuts NI Protocol)
August 1971 end of Bretton Woods
Monetary Policy
A non-exhaustive list of asymmetric reasons:
not: cultural, gastronomic, etc.
not-continental political tradition/culture system
political psychology: latecomers (defensive position
unclear goal membership/leadership ambitions
geopolitical orientation: not the continent but the Atlantic/anglo-saxon world
division/hostility/euroscepticism establishment
economic interests (costs versus benefits) versus political motivation (irreversability; common destiny; democratic isntitutions, etc.)
Why do we use the Euro?
Turning Points (1984-85)
Draft Treaty on the European Union (1984) at the initiative of MEP Altierro Spinelli: Crocodile Club (meetings of MEPs for the reform of institutions
German-Italian initiative: so called Genscher-Colombo plan broadening the EPC and single market is watered down but:
Fontainebleau agreement
reached on the rebate UK had wanted: European Summit Fontainebleau (June 1984)
with this summit: and Ad hoc Committee on Institutional Affairs
Dooge Committee
: he presents his report on the single market and institutional reform (1985)
Jacques Delors
becomes European Commission president in 1985 announcing his ambition to intensify European monetary cooperation and to complete the single market
White paper 'Completing the internal market'
Implementation of Single European Act (1987) (political agreement was on the 85, signature on the 86, entered into force onthe 87)
Budgetory reforms (Delors I/II)
Enlargement (Spain and Portugal 1986 & Finland, Austria, Sweden 1995)
Delors Committee (prepares the EMU and Maastricht Treaty in 1992)
Objective 1992
Single European Act: the aim is to complete the single market by 31st December 1992 (thus, Objective 1992)
Incorporates European Political Cooperation
Granted new competences on certain domains like environment or technology
New decision-making cooperation/consultation procedure (role of the EP)
European identity
Citizen's call for more involvement in the process of European integration: Committee for a People's Europe: report now known as Adonnino Report. Ideas like Erasmus, health insurance, Ombudsman, flag, etc. all approved at 1985 European Council and on 29th May 86 new symbols inaugurated
Implosion
Pan-European Picnic
: near Sopron, on the border between Austria and Hungary. Idea comes from Otto von Habsburg (prince), German MEP and successor of Coudenhove-Kalergi as President o pan-European Movement. Hungarian government allows a few hours of unrestricted travel between both countries
Baltic Way
: Baltic States protest Soviet oppression: Human chain 650km demanding for independence. This movement gave impetus to such movements as a positive example, stimulating German reunification process
Fall of the Berlin Wall 1989 9 November
Velvet Revolution
in Czechoslovakia ends the communist rule and in Bulgaria communist government deposed. Only in Romania it is bloody.
Independence of Baltic States in 1991: all of it led to a more pro-Europe environment
East West relations
1988-1990: trade agreements with the EEC Hungary. Czechoslovakia, Poland, Soviet Union, East Germany, Bulgaria
PHARE
: Poland and Hungary Assistance for the Restructuring of the Economy led by the European Commission
Helmut Kohl
German Chancellor: proposes his Zehn Punkte Plan zur Deutschlandpolitik (1989): Germany Unity within a year: Politically and institutionally the East German states merge into West Germany on 3 October 1990
The road to Maastricht
Legally
: two IGC: Economic and Monetary Union (also known as Delors Committee) and the European Political Union (with among other things giving the EP a more important role in legislation)
Politically
: Franco-German exchange (Germany drops Deutsche Mark and France dropts its opposition to German unification).
What drives the others to agree to this?
Benelux and Italy no reason to object and Danes and British secure a permanent opt-out to stay out of the EMU and Portugal, Spain, Greece, Ireland, approval is paid for (Cohesion Fund) since they are the poorest.
Three pillars
Final negotiations on 9/10 December 1991: political compromise transformed into a new
Treaty establishing the European Union
singed 7th February 1992, entered into force 1st November 1993
FIRST PILLAR
: supports the EEC and the EMU where the community method is applied. EP (simple majority) and Council of the EU (qualified majority) can either approve or reject a Commission proposal following possible amendments.
SECOND AND THIRD PILLAR
: hold the CFSP (formerly EPC) and Justice and Home Affairs. In these two domains the power still rests with the Member States.
Also principle of subsidiarity: decisions must be taken at the lowest possible level (as close to the citizen as possible)
Three stages
FIRST PHASE
: liberalisation of capital flows between MS (until end of 1993)
EMI (European Monetary Institute) founded in 1994 in Frankurt am Main to keep an eye on financial affairs and ensure price stability
Madrid European Council in December 1995: new currency baptised the
'euro'
ECB sees the light of day on 1 June 1995
1 January 1999 exchange of national currencies with countries that meet the criteria; 1 January 2002 first actual coins and notes
Four criterias called into life: convergence criteria (Maastricth criteria) related to interest rates, public finances, inflation levels, exchange rates: only if MS meet this conditions can they enter the
currency union
Yugoslav Wars break out: series of separate but related etchnic conflicts, wars of independence and insurgences from 1991-2001 in SFR Yugoslavia.
The Maastricht Treaty had expanded EU consequences but euphoria quickly ebbed away when the brand new CFSP turns out to be
impotent
at this moment of wars.
Why does every crisis strengthen the EU?
Moment of crises
Council of Europe
EDC: NATO membership Germany
British accession
Empty chair crisis 1965-66
Monetary Union
Eurosclerose
Referenda
Euro crisis
Migration crisis
Brexit, etc.
Polycrisis Period (2009-)
Euro crisis
War in Ukraine (2014)
Secretary of State James Baker had promised Russie that the Atlantic Alliance would not move one inch forward considering it a direct threat from Russia if they did.
Four months later: Russia enters Georgia (2008).
Secessionist war in Ukraine: Russia proclames two breakaway states: Donetsk and Luhansk, occupying also Cimea (annexation 18 March 2014)
Migration crisis (2015)
Commission 2015: distribute proportionaly among MS those migrants highly likely to receive international protection.
Operation Sophia
:military ships operate in the Mediterranean to combat human traffickers and their networks (replaced after by Operation Irini)
(Temporary suspension) Dublin Agreements: regulations that stipulate that the country where a migrant first sets foot is responsible for processing the asylum their application.
Plans from the Commission to spread 160 000 migrants from Greece and Italy all over the MS: Poland, Hungary and Czech Republic refuse to cooperate: infrigement procedure, condemnation by the CJEU
EU-Turkey dea
l. to transfer every migrant that arrives by boat in Greece to Turkey, in return, a Syrian refugee will be resettled from Turkey into the EU. As compensation EU transfers billions to Turkey
2020
Migration and Asylum Pact (entered into force on 11 June 2024): set of new rules managing migration and establishing a common asylum system at EU level
Terrorism
Al Qaeda: Madrid, London, Cohenhagen following the 9/11. Also Paris 2015. Attacks also in Brussels: it is Euopre as a whole that has been targeted: "these latest attack only strengthens our resolve to defend European values [...] We will be united"
European Counter Terrorism Centre (ECTC)
Passenger Name Records (PNR) agreements are also concluded, facilitating the exchange of identity data of air passengers
Brexit (2016)
Rule of Law crisis
Poland and Hungary. Art. 7 of Treaty of Lisbon invoked for both: serious risk of one of the EU's fundamental values (like the functioning of the rule of law):
First temporary suspension of voting rights
Soft law used to ensure quality of democracy
At the root of the problem: political disagreement in countries abouth what exactly means to be part of the Union and to what extent national policy is subordinated to European.
Climate crisis
European Green Deal
: climate change and environment degradation are an existential threat to Europe and the world: to overcome it this deal aim is to transition the EU into a moder, resource-efficient and competitive economy
No net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2050 (reducing them by at least 53% by 2030)
Economic growth decoupled from resource use
No person and no place left behind
Covid-19 crisis (2020-21)
NextGenerationEU
(2021-23): temporary mechanism recovery plan, it comes on top of the already ambitious Multi-annual Financial Framework (MFF)
Recovery and Resilience Facility
: temporary isntrument centrepice of NextGenerationEU: through it the Commission raises funds by borriowing on the capital markets, then available to MS, to implement reforms and investments
WIthout the Covid-19 the German Chancellor and the French President would not have managed to get the rest of the EU in tow so quickly: French-German proposal:
an initiative for the European recovery from the coronavirus
: aimed at fostering economic recovery across the EU
Ukraine bis (2022-
): Putin's troops invade Ukraine on 24th February 2022
European debt crisis
September 2008: fall Lehman Brothers (US): worldwide financial turmoil
Saving large private banks ("to big to fail" and in their fall they would drag down with them the entire economic fabric of the countries involved) by governments: sovereign debt crisis
Spring 2010: Greece (EMU since 2000) admits statistical fraud (budget deficit)
Focus on 'PIGS' countries, Cyprus, Estonia, etc.
Economic crisis (unemployment) but
not
a currency crisis (of trust)
REMEDIES
European Financial Stability Facility is established in Luxembourg: provide loans to countries whose access to financial markets has been cut off due to high interest rates. Also the European Financial Stability Mechanism (turns to EFM by 2013)
Austerity Measures
: reducing budget deficit by cutting public expenditure
Interventions by the
TROIKA
= European Commission/ECB/IMF (operating under a shared mandate) via Memoranda of Understanding
Banking supervision ECB (stress tests)
Macro-economic and financial surveillance (=strengthening the EMU) via '
Six pack
', '
Two pack
and
Fiscal Compact
Treaty on Stability, Coordination and Governance in the Economic and Monetary Union (TSCG), the so called
Fiscal Compact
supposed to encourage stricter supervision of their national finances
Reform of the EMU in four domains: fiscal union, banking union, economic union, greater democratic control
Six and two pack are designed as supplemet to the SGP to incentivise stricter and better fiscal policy
Introduction budget cycle (2010)
European/National Semester
: the aim is to achieve greater aligment between the policies pursued by the eurozone members to increase stability and internal cohesion on the currency union
Fight against uneployment (Youth Guarantee Scheme)
'Juncker Plan'
(public investment) officially the Investment Plan for Europe it aims to regenerate a multiplier effect for the benefit of small businesses through targeted public investment in the real economy to stimulate growth and employment
Banking Union (protection of deposits saving up to 100000€)
ECB buying government bonds in an attempt to keep interest rates as low as possible
Democracy deficit
The call for more democracy led to the use of the Spitzenkandidaten system: political families nominate their candidate for President of the Commission and these politicians become the figureheads of a pan-European election campaign
Why do new countries keep joining?
Enlargement History
Geographic expansion
1952: France/Germany/Italy/Benelux
1973: UK/Ireland/Denmark (Norway)
1981: Greece
1986: Spain/Portugal
1990: former GDR
1995: Austria/Finiland/Sweden (Norway)
2004: Baltic States/Poland/Czech R./Slovakia/Slovenia/Hungary/Cyprus/Malta
2007: Bulgaria/Romania
2013: Croatia
2020 (31st January): UK out
Amsterdam
Ater a half and a year of negotiations, the now 15 EU MS gather in Amsterdam to put the finishing touches to the Treaty, signed by the Ministers of Foreign Affairs
Reinforce the CSFP after Yugoslav fiasco: High Representative (Javier Solana 1999-2009)
Idea of constructive abstention is introduced
Set of values: liberty, democracy, respect for HR, fundamental freedoms, rule of law.
Sanction mechanism
Principle of enhanced cooperation: allowing MS to team up for policies:
Schengen Zone
(1995)
Resit: in an enclosed statement Belgium, France and Italy disclose that insufficient changes have been made in light of the accession of new Member States: another treaty amendment is inescapable:
Helsinki European Summit
(1999)
Treaty revision in
Nice
Around 50 articles are moved to the majority system (from unanimity). Definition of QMV adjusted.
Redistribution of votes
Composition of Commission and EP for discussion (one Commissioner per country and more number of seats)
Enhance cooperation in
all pillars
and not just in the third and first
CJEU expanded
FAIL
: reforms that are supposed to prepare the Union for the enlargement wave have still not materialised.
Accession Criteria
(Copenhagen Criteria)
The TEU sets out the conditions (Article 49) and principles (Article 6 (1)) to which any country wishing to become a member of the European Union must conform. These criteria were established by the Copenhagen European Council and strengthened by the Madrid European Council
Stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, rule of law, HR, respect for and protection of minorities
Functioning market economy and the ability to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the EU
Ability to take on the obligations of membership, including capacity to effectively implement rules, standards, policies that make up EU law and adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union
Relative Deprivation Theory
: people who feel deprived of something consider essential in for their lives may organise socail movements, armed conflicts to obtain it.
Laeken Declaration
European Summit in the Greenhouses of the Royal Palace in Laeken: time for a radically new approach
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU
Laeken Group
: informal network of advirsors including Delors and Dehaene.
Text adopted in 1999 after the European Convention
Laeken Declaration
2001 breathes life into this new formula. Convening of a Convention on the future of Europe
Convention on 28th February 2002 with 105 participants chaired by Giscard d'Estaing:
main goals
: a more democratic EU and a clearer separation of national and EU competences
CONCLUSIONS
:
Draft Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe
adopted by the European Council on June 2004 and signed in Rome later that year inn the presence of Josep Borrell
Approved by the EP, rejected by France and Netherlands in referendums.
Following the rejection of the Constitutional Treaty EU countries began work on the Lisbon Treaty
FOURTH TIME'S THE CHARM
European Summit in Lisbon
October 2007 (Mosteiro dos Jerónimos)
Lisbon Treaty takes effect from 1 November 2009, the changes introduced and agreements made are far-reaching
Unifies the three pillars under a single set of decision-making procedures
Co-decision procedure between EP and Council
751 MEPs (now 705)
EP given more power
Changes in the majority system in the Council, also a switch from unanimity to (reinforced) qualified majority is made in 46 areas
Early warning system to stregthen the role of national parliaments (yellow card and orange card)
European Council as an EU institution
Charter of Fundamental Rights of EU into the treaties
Future EU enlargement
integration paradox: there is high demand and low supply
reform without calendar won't work
arguments against: budget, reform, etc; for: humanitarian, economical (market opportunities, prosperity), strategical (geopolitics, stability)
Why Europe?
European Treaties
Schuman Declaration 1950
EDC 1951
Treaties of Rome (EEC, EURATOM) 1956-58
SEA 1985-87
Maastricht Treaty 1990-93
Amsterdam 1996-99
Nice 2000-2003
Convention 2002-03 Constitutional Treaty 2003-04
Lisbon Treaty 2007-09
Moment of crises
Council of Europe
EDC: NATO membership Germany
British accession
Empty chair crisis 1965-66
Monetary Union
Eurosclerose
Referenda
Euro crisis
Migration crisis
Brexit, etc.
Geographic expansion
1952: France/Germany/Italy/Benelux
1973: UK/Ireland/Denmark (Norway)
1981: Greece
1986: Spain/Portugal
1990: former GDR
1995: Austria/Finiland/Sweden (Norway)
2004: Baltic States/Poland/Cxech R./Slovakia/Slovenia/Hungary/Cyprus/Malta
2007: Bulgaria/Romania
2013: Croatia
2020 (31st January): UK out