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PROBLEM STATEMENTS :, (2.1.1 Piaget and Vygotsky - Constructivism, One of…

- - - - Theoritical Framework
        
        2.2.1 Krashen’s Input Hypothesis
        Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, developed in the 1970s and 1980s, emphasizes the significance of comprehensible input in language acquisition. According to Krashen, learners acquire language when they are exposed to material just slightly beyond their current level, known as “i+1.” This helps learners progress naturally by understanding language in context rather than through explicit grammar instruction. The theory also includes the affective filter hypothesis, which states that motivation, anxiety, and confidence influence how effectively learners absorb language. A low affective filter helps students process input better and acquire new vocabulary more efficiently (Krashen, 1982).
        2.2.2 Dual Coding Theory (Paivio, 1971)
        According to Dual Coding Theory, the brain processes information through two systems: the verbal (language and text) and the nonverbal (images and sensory input). Learning is more effective when information is presented using both systems simultaneously. Captioned videos, which combine spoken language (audio), written captions (text), and visuals (scenes), support this theory by helping learners build stronger, multi-sensory connections to vocabulary. This dual input aids memory retention and makes vocabulary more meaningful (Paivio, 1971).
        2.2.3 Multimedia Learning Theory (Mayer, 2001)
        Mayer’s Multimedia Learning Theory explains that learning improves when verbal and visual materials are presented together. It includes principles like the Multimedia Principle (learning is enhanced through words and visuals), the Modality Principle (people learn better with both visual and auditory input), and the Contiguity Principle (learning is more effective when related visuals and text appear close together). Captioned videos on platforms like Netflix apply these principles by combining dialogue, subtitles, and images, helping students learn vocabulary in context and making it easier to remember (Mayer, 2001).
  - - - Research Objectives
        
        2.4 Use Of Captioned Videos In Language Learning
        Captioned videos are valuable tools in language learning, especially for vocabulary acquisition, as they combine spoken language, written text, and visuals to enhance understanding. Fievez et al. (2021) found that learners watching Netflix with glossed captions learned more vocabulary than those who watched without captions, showing how audiovisual media supports incidental learning. These videos are effective because they align with multimodal learning principles, with Audiovisual Translation (AVT) helping students connect spoken words to readable text (Lo, 2024). Dual subtitles, in particular, help learners retain new vocabulary due to better comprehension. Studies also show that personalized subtitle settings like glossed captions or turning captions on or off empower learners and boost motivation (Montero Pérez et al., 2022), making captioned videos not only educational but also enjoyable and emotionally engaging.
        2.5 Challenges In Using Captioned Media In The Classroom
        Despite their benefits, using captioned media in classrooms can be challenging due to cognitive overload, especially for beginners who struggle with processing speech, subtitles, and visuals at the same time. Mismatched or complex subtitles may confuse learners, especially when dealing with fast speech or unfamiliar cultural references (Montero Pérez et al., 2022). Teachers also lack clear guidelines on how to use AVT effectively, often treating subtitles as extra activities rather than aligning them with lesson goals (Lo, 2024). Limited access to internet, streaming platforms, or licensing rights adds further barriers, especially in under-resourced schools. Some platforms also restrict subtitle customization options, which are important for student preference (Fievez et al., 2021). Lastly, relying too much on subtitles may hinder students’ independent listening skills, so educators must strike a balance by encouraging active listening without overdependence on captions.
        2.6 Students’ Perceptions On Using Netflix With Captions
        Students generally have a positive view of using Netflix with captions, finding it helpful for engagement and vocabulary learning. Many say that captions help them understand hard words, stay focused, and feel more confident in using English. Lo (2024) notes that students prefer dual subtitles because they clarify meaning without disrupting the viewing experience. Captioned content also feels more authentic than textbook learning, exposing students to natural speech, slang, and pronunciation. Dizon and Thanyawatpokin (2021) found that regular viewers of captioned content used vocabulary more accurately and were more willing to speak English, showing that AVT tools like Netflix subtitles support both learning outcomes and self-efficacy. Preferences vary some students like standard subtitles while others prefer glossed or keyword-enhanced captions. Allowing learners to adjust subtitle features improves comfort and learning outcomes (Montero Pérez et al., 2022). Though some face challenges like fast subtitles or native accents, structured teaching and discussion help make captioned videos an effective and motivating learning tool.
      - 1. To identify the effects of watching captioned Netflix TV series on the vocabulary skills among secondary school students at SMK Taman Maluri.
        2. To examine how students' vocabulary performance differs before and after watching captioned Netflix TV series among secondary school students at SMK Taman Maluri.
      - Methodology
        
        3.0 Introduction
        This chapter describes the methodology used to investigate the effectiveness of watching captioned Netflix TV series in improving vocabulary among secondary school students at SMK Taman Maluri. Vocabulary is essential for language learning, yet many students struggle to expand their vocabulary due to limited exposure to English in everyday settings. With the rise of streaming platforms, students now have more opportunities to watch English-language content, and captioned shows can support vocabulary learning by providing both audio and written forms of words at the same time. This exposure helps learners connect word meaning, spelling, and pronunciation more effectively. Research by Peters and Webb (2018) supports the idea that captioned videos can improve vocabulary through repeated and meaningful input. Therefore, this study uses a quantitative quasi-experimental design to examine whether students show improvements in vocabulary after watching captioned Netflix series.
        
        3.1 Research Design
        This study used a quantitative quasi-experimental design to investigate the effectiveness of watching captioned Netflix TV series in improving students’ vocabulary. A quasi-experimental design was chosen because the researcher could not randomly assign participants, and the study was carried out using existing classes. Students were given a vocabulary pre-test before the intervention to assess their initial level. Then, over a few weeks, they were asked to watch selected English Netflix series with captions. After the viewing period, a post-test with similar vocabulary items was conducted to measure any improvement. This design allowed the researcher to compare students’ vocabulary performance before and after the intervention using statistical analysis.
        
        3.2 Population and Sample
        The population of this study consisted of secondary school students from SMK Taman Maluri. The sample was selected using convenience sampling, focusing on students who were readily accessible and willing to participate. A single class of students was chosen to represent the sample, as the researcher had access to them for both the pre-test and post-test sessions. These students were selected because they had basic exposure to English and were familiar with using digital platforms like Netflix. Using this sample allowed the researcher to conduct the study in a real classroom setting without disrupting the students’ regular learning schedule.
        
        3.3 Instrumentation
        This study used two main instruments: a vocabulary test (administered as both a pre-test and post-test) and a student questionnaire. The vocabulary test consisted of multiple-choice questions adapted from standard English language learning resources suitable for secondary students, focusing on word meaning, usage, and contextual understanding. Both the pre-test and post-test used similar formats to ensure reliability and consistency across measurements, as recommended in vocabulary research design (Nation, 2022). The questionnaire, on the other hand, was used to gather background data related to students’ frequency of watching captioned Netflix content, language habits, and self-perceived English proficiency. Questionnaires are commonly used in language learning studies to support quantitative analysis and add context to test results (Wang & Renandya, 2021). Together, these instruments allowed the researcher to measure changes in vocabulary performance while also exploring learners’ exposure to captioned media.
- - - - To investigate how lecturers and students at UPTM perceive and interpret the language ideologies underpinning English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI), and to examine how these ideologies influence classroom practices, communication, and the overall effectiveness of EMI implementation.
    - - What are the underlying language ideologies held by lecturers and students regarding the use of English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) at UPTM?
        
        How do these language ideologies influence lecturers’ and students’ attitudes toward EMI in terms of classroom engagement, communication, and academic performance?
  - - - There exists a gap between the policy-level promotion of EMI and the actual linguistic realities in classrooms at UPTM. Lecturers and students may hold conflicting beliefs about the role and purpose of English in academic settings, leading to challenges in communication, comprehension, and teaching effectiveness. Similar issues have been reported in other EMI contexts, where top-down policies often fail to consider the practical linguistic competencies and attitudes of stakeholders (Macaro et al., 2018; Hu & Lei, 2014). The lack of alignment between EMI ideology and classroom practice remains underexplored, especially from the perspective of both lecturers and students.
        
        Despite the implementation of English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) in many Malaysian higher education institutions such as UPTM, there is limited understanding of how lecturers and students perceive the ideological motivations behind its use. These perceptions influence classroom engagement, language attitudes, and ultimately academic performance. Scholars have argued that language ideologies play a central role in shaping how EMI is received and practiced in educational contexts (Tollefson & Tsui, 2018; Nguyen, 2019), yet little research has explored how these ideologies shape or hinder the effectiveness of EMI practices in the UPTM context.
        
        Language ideologies such as viewing English as a symbol of modernity, globalisation, or linguistic superiority may influence how EMI is accepted or resisted by stakeholders at UPTM. However, the diverse sociolinguistic backgrounds of both students and lecturers may lead to varied interpretations and experiences of EMI. This mismatch has not been adequately examined in prior studies, resulting in an incomplete picture of EMI’s true impact on teaching and learning. While scholars have highlighted that local language ideologies can shape the implementation and reception of EMI (Sahan, 2020; Tsui & Tollefson, 2017), research focusing specifically on institutions like UPTM remains limited.
  - - - Chapter 2
        
        2.0 Introduction
        
        Growth of EMI and the Role of Linguistic Ideologies.
        English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) has expanded in non-native English-speaking countries like Malaysia to internationalize higher education and enhance graduate competitiveness. However, its implementation is shaped by underlying linguistic ideologies that influence institutional policies, student experiences, and teaching practices (Macaro et al., 2018; Hultgren et al., 2014).
        
        Theoretical Frameworks for Understanding EMI and Language Use.
        Several theoretical perspectives—such as linguistic capital theory, internationalization theory, translanguaging theory, and language ideology theory—help explain how English is perceived as a language of power, opportunity, and access both locally and globally (Bourdieu, 1991; García & Wei, 2014; Phillipson, 2009).
        
        Review of Literature on EMI in Malaysia and Identified Gaps.
        Existing research explores topics like the evolution of EMI in Malaysia, student challenges in EMI classrooms, and identity formation among learners and educators. Strategies such as translanguaging and collaborative learning have been found effective, but there are still gaps in understanding local perspectives, particularly in contexts like Universiti Poly-Tech Malaysia (UPTM) (Ali, 2013; Rose & Galloway, 2019).
        
        2.1 Theoretical Framework
        
        English as a Tool for Advancement (Language Ideology Theory)
        EMI is underpinned by the belief that English signifies academic and professional advancement. This aligns with language ideology theory, which highlights how beliefs about language shape behavior, policy, and identity (Spolsky, 2009). At UPTM, English is often viewed as superior and necessary for success, influencing curriculum and students’ self-worth.
        
        EMI as a Mechanism of Internationalisation (Globalisation Theory)
        EMI reflects an institutional strategy to align with global education norms, attract international students, and improve prestige. According to Knight (2004), internationalisation involves embedding global dimensions into all aspects of higher education, with English playing a central role. However, this may create tensions with local linguistic realities.
        
        English as Socioeconomic Capital (Linguistic Capital Theory)
        Drawing on Bourdieu’s (1991) concept of linguistic capital, English is perceived as a valuable asset in the job market. EMI is seen as a pathway to upward mobility. Nonetheless, this ideology may disadvantage those with lower English proficiency, reinforcing existing inequalities.
        
        English as a Tool for Advancement (Language Ideology Theory)
        EMI is underpinned by the belief that English signifies academic and professional advancement. This aligns with language ideology theory, which highlights how beliefs about language shape behavior, policy, and identity (Spolsky, 2009). At UPTM, English is often viewed as superior and necessary for success, influencing curriculum and students’ self-worth.
        
        2.2 EMI and Identity
        
        Language and Identity Intertwined
        EMI influences students' and lecturers’ identities. Language is not just a communication tool, but a key part of one’s cultural and social identity (Norton, 2013). In EMI settings, students with low English proficiency may feel marginalized, leading to reduced confidence or suppression of their first language.
        
        Impact on Lecturers
        Lecturers often adapt their teaching methods—simplifying content or code-switching—to accommodate students’ needs, which may affect their professional identity (Flowerdew et al., 2017). EMI thus reshapes classroom dynamics and professional roles.
        
        Concerns about Inclusivity
        Although EMI is intended to promote global competitiveness, it may inadvertently promote linguistic assimilation. The pressure to conform to English norms could compromise inclusivity and students’ sense of belonging, particularly in diverse linguistic contexts like Malaysia.
        
        2.3 EMI in Malaysia
        
        Historical and Policy Shifts in Language Medium
        Malaysia's language-in-education policy has evolved due to colonial history and post-independence nationalism. While English was dominant during British rule, post-independence efforts promoted Bahasa Malaysia to foster national unity. Policies like PPSMI and MBMMBI later reintroduced English in key subjects to boost global competitiveness (Gill, 2005).
        
        Current EMI Practice and Challenges
        EMI is now widely used in Malaysian higher education, especially in STEM and business programs. It aims to improve employability and internationalization. However, students from rural or low-income backgrounds often face significant challenges due to limited English proficiency, leading to unequal access to academic content and success (Alias et al., 2021).
        
        Tensions Between Policy and Classroom Reality
        While EMI is promoted at the policy level, lecturers often code-switch to explain complex ideas, revealing a disconnect between formal language policy and actual teaching practices. These inconsistencies raise concerns about whether EMI promotes equal opportunity or deepens educational inequality.
        
        2.4 Student Challenges and Coping Strategies in EMI Context
        
        Linguistic Barriers in Comprehension and Participation
        Students often struggle with listening comprehension, note-taking, and understanding lectures in English, which is frequently a second or foreign language. This issue is common across various countries, including Malaysia, Sweden, Oman, and Japan (Airey, 2006; Aizawa et al., 2020; Albakri, 2013; Rahman & Singh, 2021a).
        
        Collaborative Learning and Peer Support
        Group work and peer discussions have proven effective in reducing individual pressure and encouraging active participation in EMI classrooms (Soruç & Griffiths, 2018; Wilang, 2022).
        
        Translanguaging as a Practical Learning Strategy
        Allowing students to use both English and their native languages improves comprehension of complex ideas. Studies show translanguaging supports deeper learning and inclusivity, even in EMI settings like Malaysia (Sah & Li, 2020; Rahman & Singh, 2021a).
        
        2.5 Collaborative Learning and Translanguaging as Coping Strategies
        
        Link Between EMI Ideologies and Student Strategies
        The adoption of EMI in Malaysia is driven by institutional ideologies that prioritize internationalization and employability (Rahman & Singh, 2021b). In response, students adopt collaborative learning and translanguaging as coping mechanisms, showing a direct link between top-down policy and bottom-up classroom practices.
        
        Classroom-Level Challenges and Realities
        Issues like group conflicts, uneven participation, and lecturer code-switching highlight the gap between EMI policy and classroom practice (Ali & Hamid, 2018). These tensions underscore the need for flexible, inclusive teaching strategies.
        
        English as a Symbol of Academic and Professional Mobility
        Both sources frame English as not just a language of instruction but a tool for academic success and global opportunity. EMI is seen as a gateway to better job prospects and global engagement, reinforcing its perceived symbolic capital in higher education (Rahman & Singh, 2020; Zainuddin et al., 2019).
      - Chapter 3
        
        3.0 Introduction – Methodology Overview
        
        Purpose of the Chapter
        This chapter outlines the research methodology used to explore the linguistic ideologies of lecturers and students regarding English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) at Universiti Poly-Tech Malaysia (UPTM). It justifies the chosen research design and links it to the research objectives.
        
        Ethical Considerations and Trustworthiness
        The chapter also addresses ethical concerns, such as informed consent and confidentiality, and explains steps taken to ensure the reliability and credibility of the research findings.
        
        Overall Aim
        The methodological design aims to provide a transparent and rigorous framework for understanding how EMI at UPTM is shaped by underlying linguistic ideologies, particularly in the Malaysian higher education context.
        
        3.1 Research Design
        
        Justification for Qualitative Approach.
        
        This study adopts a qualitative design to explore deep-seated language ideologies and perceptions of EMI among UPTM lecturers and students.
        
        Qualitative methods are appropriate for uncovering how and why participants think the way they do about language use in academic contexts
        
        As Almurashi (2023) notes, qualitative research is ideal for examining socially constructed perspectives shaped by institutional and cultural influences.
        
        Case Study as the Selected Methodology.
        
        A case study approach was chosen to focus on a specific, bounded context: UPTM, a Malaysian institution practicing EMI in the absence of a formal national EMI policy.
        
        This design allows for an in-depth, real-world investigation of EMI as it is experienced in a natural setting.
        
        It supports holistic understanding and the use of multiple data sources (e.g., interviews, observations, documents), enabling triangulation for enhanced credibility.
        
        Relevance of UPTM as a Case.
        
        UPTM offers a unique site to study the interaction between individual beliefs and institutional language ideologies.
        
        The lack of formal EMI policy creates a space to explore how language practices are negotiated, shaped, and sustained informally within the university.
        
        3.2 Population and Sample
        
        The population for this study includes lecturers and students at University Poly-Tech Malaysia (UPTM).
        
        This means the research focuses on people who are directly involved in teaching and learning, especially in programs where English is used as the medium of instruction (EMI).
        
        These groups were chosen because they have first-hand experience and insights about using English in higher education at UPTM.
- - - - Not Knowing How Students Feel About Their Lecturers
        
        We don’t really know how first-semester TESL students feel about their lecturers, and this might affect how well they learn in class. A positive student–lecturer relationship is known to enhance student motivation and academic engagement (Hagenauer & Volet, 2022), but limited research existing on how TESL students perceive these relationships in their early university experiences.
      - Students May Face Problems Adjusting to University Life
        
        New TESL students might have problems getting used to university life, but we don’t know exactly what these problems are. Transitioning from secondary school to university is often accompanied by emotional, academic, and social challenges that can affect learning (Tinto, 2021; Baker & Siryk, 2020). However, specific adjustment issues faced by TESL students remain underexplored.
      - Students Might Have Trouble Talking to Lecturers or Classmates
        
        Some students might find it hard to talk or share ideas with lecturers or classmates, but we don’t know how big this problem is. Communication barriers in educational settings can hinder student participation and confidence, especially in language learning environments (Zhou et al., 2023; Peng, 2020). First-semester TESL students may experience these issues more acutely but evidence is lacking.
    - - The purpose of this study is to explore the perceptions of first-semester TESL students at UPTM regarding their learning experiences with their lecturers and classmates, in order to identify emotional, social, and communication challenges that may affect their academic adjustment and performance.
  - - - Exploring The Perceptions of First Semester Tesl Students Towards Their Learning Experiences With Their Lecturer and Classmates at UPTM
  - - - How do first-semester TESL students at UPTM describe their interactions and learning experiences with lecturers and classmates?
        
        What emotional, social, and communication challenges do first-semester TESL students at UPTM face during their adjustment to university life?
    - - To explore how first-semester TESL students at UPTM perceive their interactions with lecturers and classmates, and how these interactions influence their learning experiences.
        
        -To examine the emotional, social, and communication challenges encountered by first-semester TESL students at UPTM as they adjust to university life.
  - - - 2.6 Peer Interactions and Classroom Environment
        
        In online settings, building this connection is harder, so lecturers must create a sense of virtual community (Gani et al., 2023; Gaffas, 2023).
        
        A friendly and inclusive classroom encourages students to speak confidently without fear of judgment (Soh Siak Bie et al., 2021).
        
        Peers contribute to learning by providing emotional and academic support during tasks, discussions, and group work.
      - 2.4 Student–Lecturer Interactions in the TESL Context
        
        TESL students also observe and adopt lecturers’ teaching approaches, shaping their future roles as educators (Derakhshan et al., 2022).
        
        When lecturers are supportive and easy to approach, students feel more confident and involved (Razak & Ismail, 2023).
        
        Lecturers have a strong impact on how students feel about their studies and learning environment.
      - 2.3 Students’ Perceptions in Higher Education
        
        Positive experiences like clear explanations and meaningful feedback increase confidence and active learning (Derakhshan et al., 2022; Gani et al., 2023).
        
        These perceptions affect their motivation, academic performance, and emotional well-being (Abd Karim & Mustapha, 2025).
        
        Students develop perceptions based on communication with lecturers, social interactions, and classroom experiences.
      - 2.2 Theoretical Framework
        
        SDL theory emphasizes autonomy, where students manage their own goals and progress to become more independent learners (Tram et al., 2024).
        
        Vygotsky’s theory supports learning through social interaction, peer guidance, and collaborative tasks (Rigopouli et al., 2024).
        
        Constructivism explains that students learn best through active participation in tasks rather than passive listening (Daodu et al., 2024).
      - 2.1 Introduction
        
        Exploring these terms helps explain their motivation, challenges, and classroom engagement (Jiang & Liu, 2023).
        
        These ideas are essential to understanding how first-semester TESL students experience academic and social transitions at UPTM.
        
        This chapter iroduces the key concepts that frame the study: perception, blended learning, and self-directed learning.
      - 2.7 Self-Directed Learning (SDL) in TESL
        
        SDL helps students plan, organize, and take responsibility for their own learning goals (Tram et al., 2024).
        
        TESL learners often use apps, videos, or English materials outside class to improve their skills (Chen & Saharuddin, 2025).
        
        In online or blended formats, SDL becomes even more important because students must manage their time and motivation independently (Jiang & Liu, 2023).
      - 2.4 Students’ Perceptions of Virtual & Blended Learning
        
        TESL students often learn in virtual or blended formats, especially after COVID-19.
        
        Virtual learning allows flexible access but may cause distraction or isolation without proper support (Razami & Ibrahim, 2021).
        
        Blended learning provides more balance through online tools and face-to-face interaction, making it more effective for many students (Amin et al., 2024; Chen & Saharuddin, 2025).
  - - - This chapter outlines how the research was conducted to explore students’ perceptions in their first semester.
      - It explains the use of qualitative methods, which are best for collecting detailed personal experiences (Creswell & Creswell, 2023).
      - The section also includes ethical steps and procedures used to collect and interpret the data.
    - - A qualitative design is used to understand thoughts, feelings, and learning experiences through words rather than numbers.
      - It helps the researcher capture real-life stories and emotional responses in depth (Merriam & Tisdell, 2021).
      - Interviews were chosen because they allow students to speak openly and provide rich insights (Creswell & Creswell, 2023).
    - - This study uses a phenomenological approach to explore students’ lived experiences from their own perspectives.
      - It allows the researcher to understand how first-semester TESL students make sense of their academic journey (Neubauer et al., 2020; van Manen, 2021).
      - Flick (2022) explains that this approach respects each participant’s voice and captures deeper meaning behind their words.
    - - For this research at UPTM, I will use non-probability sampling because it is more practical and convenient for student-level research. This method is suitable when the full list of the population is not available or when the research has time and resource limitations. It allows me to collect data quickly and efficiently, even if the results may not be fully generalizable (Etikan et al., 2016).
      - Convenience Sampling
        
        The specific method in this research is convenience sampling, which involves selecting respondents who are easily available and willing to participate. For example, I can distribute my survey to students I meet in the cafeteria, classroom, or library. This method is very simple, cost-effective, and commonly used in quantitative studies, especially when the goal is to explore trends or patterns rather than to make general conclusions about the entire student population (Taherdoost, 2016).
    - - • Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of Convenience Sampling and Purposive Sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4.
      - • Taherdoost, H. (2016). Sampling methods in research methodology; How to choose a sampling technique for research. International Journal of Academic Research in Management, 5(2), 18–27.
- - - - The advantages of visual-based vocabulary acquisition techniques for kids with ASD are frequently highlighted in the literature now in publication. But there is still a big disconnect between what is taught in the classroom and what is suggested by theory. For these students, the consistency and effectiveness of vocabulary training may be impacted by this separation.
        
        Teaching vocabulary to children with autism spectrum disorder is especially difficult because of their diverse cognitive and communicative needs. It could be difficult for teachers to modify visual-based teaching methods to successfully accommodate these varied learning styles.
    - - The purpose of this study is to explore teachers' perceptions of using visual-based teaching strategies to teach vocabulary to children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in the classroom. This study aims to understand how teachers use these strategies, the challenges they face, and the support they need to improve vocabulary learning among children with ASD.
    - - What challenges do teachers face in adapting visual-based teaching methods to accommodate the diverse learning styles of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?
    - - To identify the specific challenges teachers encounter in modifying visual-based teaching methods to suit the diverse learning styles of children with ASD.
    - - 2.1 INTRODUCTION
        
        This chapter iroduces the key concepts that frame the study:
        
        Picturebook
        
        In recent years, picturebooks have been increasingly recognized as an effective visual-based teaching strategy for vocabulary development in children with ASD. For instance, adapted shared reading interventions that include picturebooks have been shown to significantly enhance vocabulary and listening comprehension among preschoolers with ASD. A 2023 Turkish study found that children’s vocabulary and comprehension improved gradually through interventions using picturebooks within shared reading sessions. Similarly, Nunes et al. (2021) demonstrated that dialogic reading protocols—where teachers interactively engage students with picturebook content—led to greater vocabulary gains compared to standard shared reading .
        
        Additionally, picture books that tell stories in an interesting and disciplined way might help children with ASD establish joint attention, which is a crucial aspect of language development. Picturebook sessions boosted vocabulary while also increasing student participation and engagement, according to Fleury and Towson's 2021 intervention. Teachers also reported higher attentiveness.
        
        Augmented reality
        
        The transformative potential of augmented reality (AR) in assisting children with ASD with vocabulary learning is highlighted in recent literature, particularly when combined with conventional picture books. Augmented Reality (AR) creates a highly engaging multisensory learning experience by superimposing digital content, such as 3D images, animations, or interactive sound effects, over the pages of a physical book. According to research, this complex interaction between virtual and actual aspects improves comprehension, motivation, and joint attention.
        By enabling them to customise visual and aural cues to each child's preferences and strengths, AR supports differentiated education, according to teachers. This is particularly significant for neurodiverse learners (Heins et al., 2022). All of these results point to AR picturebooks' potential as an effective visual-based teaching tool that can support conventional classroom methods and foster vocabulary development in kids with ASD.
  - - - RESEARCH DESIGN
      - This study adopts a qualitative case study design to explore teachers’ perceptions of using visual-based teaching strategies in teaching vocabulary to children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in classroom settings. The qualitative approach is suitable for gaining in-depth insights into participants’ lived experiences, beliefs, and instructional practices (Creswell & Poth, 2021). The case study design is particularly appropriate as it enables a detailed and contextual investigation of how teachers implement and perceive visual-based methods in real-life classroom environments (Yin, 2023).
      - The study aims to uncover the strategies teachers use, the challenges they encounter, and their reflections on the effectiveness of visual aids in vocabulary acquisition among students with ASD. Data will be collected through semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and document analysis (e.g., lesson plans and visual materials used). This triangulation of data sources enhances the credibility and depth of the findings. The case study design allows for a rich narrative that captures not only the "what" and "how," but also the "why" behind teachers’ instructional decisions.
      - RESEARCH POPULATION
        
        The target population for this study includes primary and secondary school teachers who are currently teaching students diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder in inclusive or special education classrooms in Malaysia. Specifically, the sample will consist of:
        
        Teachers with at least one year of experience teaching children with ASD.
        
        Teachers who have used visual-based teaching strategies in their instruction (e.g., pictures, flashcards, visual schedules, graphic organizers).
        
        Teachers from both urban and rural schools to capture a range of teaching contexts and resource availability.
        
        A purposive sampling technique will be used to select participants who can provide rich, relevant, and diverse perspectives on the research topic. The estimated sample size is 6 to 10 teachers, depending on data saturation—the point at which no new themes emerge.