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A community music programme is being introduced into the local area. The…

- - - - sharing these preferences within the music group could therefore strengthen community bonds/relations
      - "this is reflected in online dating websites... and other social media sites, where people frequently share information about their musical preferences" b3 p25
      - "Rentfrow and Gosling (2006) examined the online conversations of unacquainted university students... the researchers found that participants discusses a variety of topics... but of all the topics covered, music was the most commonly discussed" b3 p25
      - "studies on musical preferences and attraction show that music can play a decisive role in shaping perceptions of attraction" b3 p28
        
        potential partners who were said to be fans of country and western music were perceived as less attractive compared to fans of other music styles
        
        "men perceived potential female partners who were said to be fans of classical music as more physically attracted and sophisticated, compared to female with ostensible preferences for heavy metal music" b3 p28
        
        "there is some evidence that individuals are attracted to people who share their musical preferences"
        
        "research on music and attraction indicates that music communicates valid information about people's psychological characteristics and that this information influences people's decisions about who to spend time with and who to avoid" b3 29
      - "Selfhout et al. (2009) found that participants who mutually identified one another as best friends had very similar music preferences" b3 p28
      - "roommates with preferences for similar styles of music were more satisfied in their relationship" b3 p29
        
        "the reason why participants were more attracted to roommates with similar preferences was because they also shared similar values and worldviews" b3 p29
      - "it is also likely that people who share similar tastes in music enjoy similar films, books and other activties, which mean they will likely spend more time together" b3 p29
      - four year olds who produced music were significantly more likely to work together to complete the cooperative task and showed more spontaneous helping b3 p31
        
        the process of creating music can therefore facilitate cooperative and prosocial behaviour
  - - - exposure to music from other cultures may therefore counter this bias and foster a cross-cultural appreciation of music - fostering integration
        
        ties to social identity? in groups/out groups?
      - "research on music perception suggests that the musical enculturation develops along with language acquisition" b3 p10
      - "these findings indicate that as infants begin to differentiate sounds that are specific to their culture, they lose the ability to hear or recognise sounds that are not common to their culture" b3 p10
    - - "the results indicated that musical preferences change over time in ways that appear to reflect key challenges of psychosocial development" b3 p22
        
        "preferences for aggressive rock music are highest during adolescence when young people are faced with the challenge of establishing autonomy and independence and when the personality trait agreeableness is lowest" b3 p22
        
        "preferences for dance and party music peak during young adulthood when individuals are faced with the challenge of finding a long-term intimate partner and agreeableness begins to increase" b3 p22
        
        "preferences for singer-songwriter music and 'elite' music like classical and jazz increase throughout middle adulthood during a period when individuals are concerned with the challenge of having a meaningful and successful life" b3 p22
  - - - social context
      - lighting
      - mood
        
        "in addition to perceiving emotion in music, anecdotal evidence suggests that certain kinds of music can affect the way we feel, with some music making us feel elated and enthusiastic, while other music makes us feel depressed and melancholic" b3 pp11-12
        
        "researchers found that listening to happy music as compared to sad music generated more self-reported happiness, smiling, skin conductance, and lower body temperature" b3 p13
        
        "studying the effects of music on emotion are typically carried out in laboratory settings, where multiple variables can be controlled to ensure that changes in emotions are the result of the music and not some other variable" b3 p14
        
        "such controlled experiments are necessary for investigating the causal association between variables. However, laboratory settings can be artificial and unrealistic so findings obtained from such studies may not generalise to real-world situations." b3 p15
      - how can these factors be emphasized to maximise psychological benefit?
        
        how can psychological benefit be measured? does it need to be?
        
        "it is common for researchers to use multiple methods to measure emotions, which may include surveys, physiological activity, brain activity, facial muscle activity, or other non-verbal behaviours" b3 p13
      - "certain auditory features (e.g. loudness, tempo, timbre, etc) were manipulated by the musicians to communicate certain emotions and that these features affected which emotions listeners percieved in the music" b3 p12
        
        the making of music within the programme could experiment with manipulating these features as a way of enhancing (And also communicating to others) emotional affect
        
        "these findings indicate not only that we can perceive emotion from music, but that listeners infer the same emotions from the same songs, and that these inferences are based, at least in part, on particular sounds characteristics of the music." b3 p12
        
        "perceiving emotion in music is not the same thing as actually having an emotional reaction to music" b3 p13
        
        "Particular combinations of sounds have come to be associated with certain emotions. our perceptions are separate from the emotions we experience in response to music" b3 p16
        
        "We can perceive a song as depressing, but that does not mean that the music makes us depressed" b3 p16
        
        "several lines of investigation indicate that the emotional experiences we have with music are driven by a set of social, cognitive and biological mechanisms" b3 p16
      - "Raymond Cattell, suggested that music acts as a catharsis for unexpressed emotions, and that listening to music releases repressed emotional tendencies" b3 p17
        
        "Therefore, he argued, musical preferences reflect unconscious motives, needs, conflicts and desires" b3 p17
        
        "a crucial aspect of empirical research is the ability to determine whether your theory or test is valid or assess the very thing that it was designed to measure. At the time in which Cattell's research was being done, and even today, there were no reliable methods for measuring unconscious processes" b3 p17
        
        could a method similar to the implicit biases battery be employed to attempt to measure these unconscious processes?
        
        "consequently, there is no way to determine whether musical preferences actually reveal aspects of the unconscious" b3 p17
        
        "Contemporary theory and research in this area has revised Cattell's ideas by arguing that musical preferences reinforce and reflect aspects of people's personalities, attitudes, values and emotions"
        
        Sharing music with others could therefore provide participants with an indirect medium for expressing themselves, feedback from the group on chosen music could re-enforce identity/sense of self
        
        "current research focuses on conscious psychological processes, and aims to measure these reliably" b3 p18
        
        "A considerable amount of research on music and personality focuses on the structure of musical preferences" b3 p18
        
        e.g. "which musical genres do fans of classical music enjoy most? Which musical genres are mostly strongly related to preference for rap music?" etc b3 p18
        
        this data could be used to make recommendations to participants of the music group based on their existing/known preferences
        
        "The typical method used to measure preferences is to ask participants to indicate the extent to which they like different music genres... of course, there are limitations with musical genres in that not everyone has the same idea of what defines a genre and not all songs can be easily categorised into a single genre
        
        Investigations have looked at the correlations between musical preferences and a range of personality and individual difference variables, including the big five personality traits (Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neurotocism) b3 p20
        
        "one personality variable that is consistently found to relate to musical preferences is openness - or the degree to which a person is creative, curious, imaginative and liberal" b3 p21
        
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        "what is not entirely clear from this research is whether preferences shapes personality, or vice versa" (direction of effect) b3 p22
        
        "to the extent that music is a representation of the culture in which one lives, it is conceivable that repeated exposure to particular musical styles, just as repeated exposure to certain values beliefs and rituals, might shape aspects of personality" b3 p22
        
        subcultures which form around musical preferences could have the same effect on a smaller scale
        
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        "participants completed a personality measure and were asked to generate a list of their top-ten favourite songs. Next, each target's ten favourite songs were played to another group of participants (who served as judges) who rated the targets on various psychological characteristics" b3 p28
        
        "the results showed that the judges formed similar impressions of the target's personalities and that their impressions overlapped significantly with target's self-reports of their own personalities" b3 p28
        
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        musical preference and behaviour b3 p21
        
        "studies have linked problem behaviours, like risk taking, drug use, sexual behaviour, and deviance, and musical preferences" b3 p21
        
        "parent groups have voiced their concerns about the violent and misogynistic messages in some rap and heavy metal songs, fearing that such messages will have negative effects on their developing children, leading them to behave violently or to adopt negative views towards women" b3 p29
        
        "participants who heard violent music...show an increase in aggression after hearing the music compared to participants in the other two conditions" b3 p30
        
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        "results from a large-scale investigation of adolescents found that fans of heavy metal and rock music were more likely to engange in forms of self-harm, substance abuse and violence" b3 p21
        
        a stereotype of the sub-culture
        
        "adolescents with preferences for classical and jazz music were more likely to show symptoms of depression" b3 p21
        
        is self-harming also indicative of depression?
        
        "what is unclear from such investigations is whether listening to certain types of music causes people to behave in particular ways, or whether some people who are at risk are more likely to prefer listening to certain styles of music" b3 p21
        
        "when people listen to music with prosocial messages, they are more likely to display empathic behaviour and to help others in need compared to when people listen to neutral music" b3 p31
        
        "music played in shops influences how long customers stay in shops, how quickly they move around the shop, and which products they buy" b3 p31
        
        "people use music to affirm and to discover who they are, i.e.. their identity. From this perspective, music can provide a platform for self-exploration, a tool that enables people to engage in self reflection and think about who they are" b3 p22
        
        Social identity theory
        
        "a number of investigations have also studied the associations between musical preference and self esteem. many of these studies are based on social identity theory" b3 p23
        
        "SIT is useful for understanding people's attachment to music and its impact on feelings of self-worth because positive information about one's group makes people feel good about themselves whereas negative information about the group can reduce people's feeling of self-worth"
        
        "The more someone identifies with a group, the more favouritism they show towards that group and more derogation towards out-groups" b3 p24
        
        Brewer's optimal distinctivenes theory b3 p24
        
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        Stereotypes b3 p26
        
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        "research in this area informs our understanding of why music plays such an important role in individual's lives: music helps people to explore, reflect on, and construct their identities" b3 p25
        
        "survey's of people's reasons for listening to music show that they believe their musical preferences to reflect information about their opinions, attitudes and lifestyles" b3 p25
        
        "the identity associations that music brings to mind are among the main factors that determine whether or not we like a piece of music" b3 p23
        
        "for example, some classical music is regarded as intellectual or cerebral, and people who want to see themselves as cultured and sophisticated in some way may adopt preferences for such music to come across in a particular way" b3 p23
        
        "similiarly, musical styles like hard rock and rap may bring forth feelings of toughness in many listeners, and it may be the feeling of toughness more than the music itself that determined whether or not people like it" b3 p23
        
        i.e., music is a way of communicating parts of our personality to others non-verbally. this can be a good 'ice breaker' or way or getting to know people who may be shy/introverted or unable/unwilling to express/articulate themselves
        
        "we chose to listen to music that satisfies and reinforced our psychological needs. It might be that music conjures images of how we see ourselves or how we would like to be seen by others" b3 p32
        
        "there is empirical research showing that music really does influence the ways in which people think, feel and behave. Moreover, the music that people choose to listen to reflects information about their (developing) identities and personalities" b3 p33
    - - music could therefore be employed as a therapeutic tool of emotional release or expression. perhaps participants could share meaningful pieces of music to be interpreted by other group members?
    - - emotional contagion
        
        "for example, we may become sad while listening to someone sing a sad song because, as research on emotional contagion indicates, we 'catch' the moods and emotions of the people around us" b3 p16
      - visual imagery
      - evaluative conditioning
        
        "we may become excited while listening to our favourite football team's chant because, as research on conditioning shows, stimuli can become paired, or associated, with specific reactions so that we have positive or negative feelings tied to the stimuli" b3 p16
      - episodic memory
      - Brain stem reflexes
      - musical expectancy
      - Cognitive appraisal
      - "The varying mechanisms draw from a range of psychology sub-disciplines, including social, cognitive, neurological and developmental areas" b3 p16
  - - - "this method involved asking participants the same few questions at a time, multiple times a day" b3 p15
      - "studies using this methodology complement controlled laboratory investigations by revealing whether associations observed in the lab emerge in the real world" b3 p15
      - "by looking at the associations between music listening behaviour and mood, the researchers were able to not only determine how often people listen to music, but also which emotions were associated with music listening episodes" b3 p15
        
        "The results revealed that music-induced emotions were experienced in nearly two-thirds (64 per cent) of all the music listening experiences reported"
        
        "the feelings that were most commonly elicited by music included calmness, happiness and interest" b3 p15
        
        "these findings nicely complement labratory studies by revealing similiar results in the real world, and go a step further by revealing which emotions are typically elicited in people's daily music experiences"
        
        "overall, this work suggests that people use music in an effort to generate or maintain positive effect" b3 p15
    - - "Factor analysis.. divides musical preferences into different groups comprising similar styles of music" b3 p19
        
        "across the various studies conducted, the results consistently show that musical preferences can be broken down into approximately five music-preference dimensions:" (M.U.S.I.C) b3 p19
        
        Sophisticated (classical, opera, jazz and world) characterised as dynamic, inspirational, smart and complex
        
        Intense (alternative, hard rock, punk, metal) characterised as loud, distorted, aggressive and raucous
        
        Unpretentious (blues, bluegrass, country, religious and folk) characterised as acoustic, simple, calm and heartfelt
        
        Contemporary (rap, dance, funk, reggae and pop) characterised as danceable, lively, energetic and rhythmic
        
        "people who are extraverted are like spending time with other people generally enjoy listening to dance and rap music" b3 p21
        
        Mellow (R&B, smooth jazz and new age) characterised by listeners as romantic, easy-going, quiet and slow
        
        "The majority of research concerned with the structure of music preferences has focused on western music... consequently, it is not clear whether the MUSIC framework applies to music from other cultures" b3 p20
        
        "most of the music genres and excerpts used in the research were produced since the mid-1960s, so it is not clear if the MUSIC framework could be used to classify music from older generations" b3 p20