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PS2030: Self-Esteem - Coggle Diagram
PS2030: Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem & Conceptualisation
The Self
Self-concept
Self-esteem
Self-efficacy
Self- Esteem
Evaluation of the self
I feel...
Definition (James, 1890)
Attitude regarding oneself
Refers to evaluation of self & individual's personal value
Self Concept
Definition of the self
I am...
Self-Efficacy
Belief in abilities
I can/can't
Narcissism & Self-Esteem (Brummelman et al., 2016)
Both refer to + self-evaluation
Measures often not distinguish between two
But qualitatively different
Feelings (Rosenberg, 1965)
Self-esteem = Considers feeling adequate & good enough
Narcissism = Concerns sense of superiority
Measures (Campbell et al., 2002)
Weakly correlated
Self-Esteem & Psychological Wellbeing (Sowislo & Orth, 2013)
Linked to + psychological adjustment
Depression (r = -.20 to - .70)
Anxiety (r = -.10 to -.70)
Happiness (r = .30 to .60)
Self-Esteem & Performance (Baumeister et al., 2003)
Benefits of self-esteem falls into two categories
Enhanced initiative
Pleasant feelings
Low self-esteem
Less clear self-conceptions
Set unrealistic goals/shy away from goals
Remember past -/- moods
Pessamistic
High Self-Esteem
Clear sense of goals
Set appropriate goals
Savour past experiences/think +
Optimisitc
Historical Perspectives
Self-esteem movement (1970/80s)
Low self-esteem causes individual/societal dysfunction
High self-esteem is the cure
Relationship between self-esteem & various social problems (Baumeister et al., 2003)
Evidence weak
Issues of causality
No evidence of epidemic low self-esteem
What is Self-Esteem
State & trait
Trait = Typical, average evaluation of self over time
State = Moment-to-moment fluctuations in self-evaluation
Evaluations
Global evaluations
Domain-specific evaluations
Appearance, academic competence, athletic ability
Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965)
Measurement of trait
State version asks how feel right now
10 statements on 4-point Likert scale
Agree/disagree about whether believe have certain qualities
Contingent Self-Esteem (Crocker, 2002)
Stake self-worth in particular domains
Contingent upon successes & failures experience in domains
Praise/reward on specific outcomes inadvertently conveys belief feeling of worth are contingent on those outcomes
Suggest may be result of socialisation process
Survey (Crocket et al., 2003)
1,418 college students
Measured seven domains
Contingency domain predicted time spent on self-reported activities
Academic (studying)
Appearance (partying/shopping/grooming)
Virtue (volunteering)
Measured self-esteem in domains of contingency
For rejection & acceptance to university
Significance
Self-esteem affected in domains self-esteem contingent in
Sensitivity (Fairlamb et al., 2022)
More sensitive to potential of threat in domains self-esteem contingent in
Self-handicapping (behavioural)
Amount q's practiced for academic contingency & likelihood of failure
Sig less practiced for low contingency when success likely
Sig more practiced for high contingency when success likely
Threat (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991)
Fluctuates in response to events
Measured state at three timepoints
Baseline (T1)
Informed about upcoming difficult exam (T2)
Receive grades back on exam (T3)
Sig diff between T1 & T2
Sig diff between T1 & T3
Sig diff at T3 compared to low grade
High = A-B
Medium = C
Low = D-F
Remotes Associates Test (Mednick, 1968)
Means of manipulating self-esteem threat
Uses difficulty of test
Three words & have to find fourth word that relates to other three
False feedback on test
Success/failure
+/- feedback
Responses (Greenberg et al., 1982)
Measured attribution of test outcome, perception of test & test importance
Success = More + attribution & feedback
Meta-Analysis of Responses (vanDellen et al., 2011)
Responses of compensating & breaking
For diff threats to self-esteem
Threats to Self-Esteem
Explanation
Minimise/reject threat
Accept threat
Attribution of failure
External
Internal
Social comparison
Downward
Upward
Persistence & motivation
Increased
Decreased
State self-esteem
Increased
Decreased
Evaluation of others
Negative
Positive
Likely to use strategy
High S-E individuals
Low S-E individuals
Anticipated Threat (Pyszczynski & Greenber, 1983)
Responses occur when sense potential for threat
False info about test predictive value
Weak (no threat) vs strong (threat)
Sample q's
Easy (success likely) vs hard (failure likely)
Self-handicapping using self-report
Intended effort higher in threat w. likely success
No diff w. no threat
Function & Human Behaviour
Theories of Function
Self-verification
Self-enhancement
Self-affirmation
Self-Verification (Swann, 1987)
Prefer info that confirms self-view
Partner preference for interaction (Swann et al., 1992)
Self-Enhancement (Kunda, 1990)
Motive to develop favourable self-view & avoid - self-views
Direct vs indirect self-enhancement (Brown et al., 1998)
Self-Affirmation (Steele, 1988)
Cope w. threat by affirming self in alternative domains
Fluid compensation (Brown & Smart, 1991)
Cross-Cultural Variation (Heine et al., 1999)
Self-esteem culturally bound
Western specific-socialised to attend to internal attributes
Self-esteem markedly lower in non-Western cultures
Correlation between self-esteem & life satisfaction stronger in individualistic cultures (Diener & Diener, 1995)
Universality (Boucher, 2010)
But how attained differs
Explicit self-esteem measurement may not be appropriate due to cultural customs
Rosenberg self-esteem measure biased toward individualism
Japanese students implicity self-esteem (Kityama & Karasawa, 1997)
Bicultural Chinese Ps completing survey in Chinese/English (Ross et al., 2002)
Role of Culture
Culture is socially constructed & consensually validated set of norms/beliefs/assumptions/values
Self-esteem derived from living up to perceived cultural standards of conduct
Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem (Crocker & Park, 2004; Crocker et al., 2006)
Can have destructive consequences
Can be costly to pursuit of other needs & goals
Can impede other needs
Other Needs
Autonomy
Not doing things for own sake but for approval of others
Competency
Mistakes/failure/criticism become threats rather than opportunities for growth
Relatedness
Can lead to defensiveness & distancing
Can lead to being too self-absorbed
Good physical health
Pursuit can be stressful
May derive S-E from unhealthy behaviours
Healthier Pursuits of S-E
Unconditional self-worth (Kernis, 2003; Rogers, 1959)
May be adaptive (Vonk & Smit, 2012)
Issue of Unconditional Self-Worth (Greenberg, 2008)
Basis should be realistic, flexible & widely attainable
Abandon dysfunctional contingencies (Crocker & Park, 2004)
Theories Why Need Self Esteem
Own sake
Manage existential based concerns
Manage own inclusiveness
Self-Esteem for its Own Sake (James, 1890; Steele, 1988)
No other reason but it exists
Strive for it for its own sake
Limitations
Not explain why motive should exist at all
Not adequately explain properties of self-esteem
Why some events threatening & some not
Manage Existential-Based Concerns (Greenberg et al., 1986)
Manage unconscious existential terror
Need to see life as meaningful rather than purposeless
Need to feel we offer valuable contribution to society
Need to feel symbolically/literally immortal
Support (Pyszczynski et al., 2004)
Empirical support for SE as death anxiety buffer
Limitation (Kirkpatrick & Navarrete, 2006)
Theoretically debateable whether is death transcendence motive
Manage Inclusiveness (Crocker & Park, 2004)
Interpersonal monitor to belongingness
Being part of group increases chance of survival
SE evolves as monitor for fitness/inclusion to social groups
Support
Social exclusion effect SE (Leary et al., 1995)
Limitation (Pyszczynski et al., 2004)
Theoretically questionable
Not all responses to SE threat reflect desire to increase inclusionary status
Quest for SE often appears to drive beyond mere inclusionary status
Beyond SE
Question whether SE only motive of our behaviour
Meaning
Uncertainty
Belonging
Distinctiveness
Continuity
Self-efficacy