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Biology - Coggle Diagram
Biology
Module 5
REPRODUCTION
Mechanisms
Sexual/Asexual
sexual: fusion of gametes (sperm and egg). E.g. spinifex grass (have runners that form roots and shoots), ginger using rhizomes, potatoes' tubers and flowering plants
Advantages: variation increase, favourable traits
Disadvantages: time and energy for partner, courtship, sacrificed/danger
Asexual: oneself copies one's own dna to duplicate the same set of genes.
Advantages: same survival rate in same environment, no partner
disadvantages: less diversity
External/Internal
External
advantage: more egg and sperm available. e.g. frog reproduce, more colour, shape, size, behavioural adaptations.
disadvantage: egg and sperm susceptible to environment. For example e.g. fish/amphibians eat frog eggs.
Internal
Advantage: safe from predatory attacks, conditioned by female pH, temp.
Disadvantage: fewer offsprings, Higher STI, higher energy
Budding
new body forms on parents then detaches to be its own organism for e.g. bacteria, flatworms, yeast, jellyfish, sea anemones and corals, protists
Binary Fission
One cell elongates and divides forming a septum, then is formed into two genetically identical cells, it undergoes mitosis during the process. for example e.g. bacteria, protists
Spores
sporogenesis that have tiny unicellular reproductive cells. differentiation of specialised cells (sporocytes) into spores through meiosis or mitosis resulting into haploid cells
System
main components
ovary
uterus
fallopian tubes
endometrium
Egg production: Oogenesis involves the maturation of oocytes (immature eggs) within follicles in the ovary, culminating in ovulation where a mature egg is released and is potentially ready for fertilisation.
HORMONES
Oestrogen: stimulates follicle growth, triggers ovulation, thickens the uterus lining and helps sperm transport.
Progesterone: prepares the endometrium for implantation and supporting the female during pregnancy.(released by corpus luteum)
GnRH: stimulates anterior lobe to secret FSH and LH.
LH: triggers ovulation and corpus luteum production.
FSH: Allows oocyte maturation, follicle growth, oestrogen production, priming the endometrium and initiating the other reproductive functions.
Prolactin: milk production
Fertilisation: involves fusion with sperm and oocyte (egg) in fallopian tube, resulting in fertilised egg (zygote), then implanted on the side of uterus (endometrium)
Implantation: Blastocyst develops into embryo, embeds into uterus lining, initiating pregnancy.
Sexual methods
Parthogenesis: embryo developed from unfertilised egg bypassing fusion. Offspring identical to parent.
Artificial insemination: sperm prepared and placed into uterus around the time of ovulation, increasing chances of preg
Selective breeding: strategically breeding individuals with desirable traits.
CELL REPLICATION
Mitosis: growth and repair
Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and cytokinesis
Meiosis: sexual reproduction
Crossing over: exchange of genetics through non sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes
Independent Assortment: having one gene doesn't affect another gene
Random segregation: Mendel's law of segregation, each daughter nuclei recieves one version of one allele.
DNA replication: 2 identical dna for cell division, constructing normal cell function like protein synthesis.
helicase splitting h-bonds between matching bases at replication fork, dan polymerase completes genetic code to incomplete gene strands (leading and lagging). Leading strand goes one direction with rna primer, to indicate point of replication fork. polymerase match bases to leading and ran [rimer with lagging from Okazaki fragments in small sections.
Prokaryotic: circular, in cytoplasm, no histones. Eukaryotic: linear, histones, nucleus. Both serve genetic material, same nucleotide bases involved in same processes.
Polypeptide synthesis: proper cell function; e.g. energy fuel, disease prevention etc.Haemolglobin and Antigen
Transcription occurs in the nucleus, with the RNA polymerase binding to the DNA called the promoter to produce rna nucleotides that complement a strand of rna. The rna polymerase breaks the hydrogen bonds and splits the dna. This process only happens to the gene that needs to be used. The non-coding strand of the dna is used for polypeptide synthesis while the coding strand is matched with the mrna strand. Editing the pre-mrna strand takes place, to replace thymine with uracil. The mrna exits the nucleus and exposes itself to be read by many ribosomes in the cytoplasm, therefore many polypeptide structures are formed from one mrna template.
Protein: built from amino acids linked up by polypeptide chains which folds into complex 3D structures: alpha helix, beta pleated sheets etc) that determines its function.
GENES
Phenotype
Genotype
affected by fertilisation and mutations
modelled
autosomal dominant
autosomal recessive
sex-linked dominant
sex-linked recessive
co-dominance
incomplete dominance
Multiple alleles
POPULATION
SNP: genetics, disease, ancestry and forensics
occurence and variation of genetic markers within population
TECHNOLOGY
DNA sequencing
Nanopore: Oxford nanopore sequencing works by passing DNA through RNA molecules in a tiny hole, called nanopores embedded in a membrane and analysing the resulting changes in electrical current to determine base sequence.
Gel electrophoresis: separates molecules like dna or proteins based on their sizes and charge by applying an electric field across a gel matrix, causing them to migrate.
reveal specific order of nucleotide bases within a dna, allowing scientists to compare sequences between individuals and identify variations or mutations that indicate how traits are passed down through generations.
DNA profiling: compares dna samples to identify individuals or link them to evidence and analyses DNA patterns in specific regions.
crime committed, there may be DNA samples left behind the crime scene (blood, fingerprints, hair etc), the sequencing is determined and compared with the DNA sequences of the suspects. For inheritance patterns, DNA sequences are derived from an individual and family members, from family relationships and traces of genetic transfer throughout the generations.
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
The HGP was an international project which aimed to determine the entire chemical composition of the human genome. This project would make a huge difference in the biology field, such as finding out genetic variation that could lead to developing new diseases. The project revealed the number of base pairs was 3 billion and the total number of genes was 20,000. It helped develop our understanding of hereditary issues such as sickle cell anemia, it refers to the mutated haemoglobin which has the shape of a crescent and takes lower o2 levels. This project helps find mutations related to that disease. It can now be managed and determine the type of people that are prone to it by figuring out their ancestry and future generation too. If the individual has African/Hispanic ancestry they are more likely to get it.
Module 6
biotechnology: the use of biological components to develop materials for human use. (mainly)
PAST
AGRICULTURE
ANTIBIOTICS
PRESENT
GENE CLONING
DNA SEQAUENCNG AND PROFILING
BT COTTON
FUTURE
CRISPR: ELIMINATE SICKLE CELL, BETTER ANTIBIOTIC, BETTER FOOD NUTRITION, PRODUCE TOXINS/CHEMICALS TO REMOVE PESTS, PRESERVE FOOD, ENDANGERED ANIMALS, MINIMISE DISEASE SPREAD
PHAGE THERAPY: TREAT ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANT BACTERIA, CAN BE SPECIFIC FOR SPECIFIC BACTERIA
SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS
AGRICULTURE: MORE BETTER FOOD WITH LESS HARM TO ENVIRONMENT
POSITIVE IMPACT ON PPL BUT NOT ENVIRONMENT DUE TO DECREASED BIODIVERSITY
MEDICINE: BETTER TREATMENT FOR CHILDREN AND DISEASE BUT COULD BE USED AS A WEAPON FOR EUGENICS/BIOWEAPON
POSITIVE BUT MISUSE
INDUSTRIES: POLLUTION PREVENTION (MICROBES), RECREATE HUMAN PARTS (BIOMATERIAL/BIOFABRICATION), SYNTHETIC NUCLEOTIDES
ETHICAL CONCERNS: MONEY/ACCESS, DISCRIMINATION, ENVIRONMENTAL, OVERPOPULATION, CULTURE, DISCRIMINATION, MISUSE, PRIVACY, BIODIVERSITY
EFFECT ON BIODIVERSITY
GOLDEN RICE
CAVENDISH BANANAS
BT COTTON
TRANSGENIC SALMON
CONTEXT
SOCIAL
golden rice: will not have higher price than normal rice, increasing accessibility in poverty. Rich vitamin A give good health on population.
banana cloning: monoculture bad for biodiversity, all badness will come.
ECONOMIC
CULTURAL
REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
E.G. BULKY COWS
ARTIFICIAL POLLINATION
FLOWERS
GENE CLONING
WHOLE ORGANISM CLONING
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
MICROINJECTION
BIOLISTICS
ELECTROPORATION
TRANSDUCTION BY A VECTOR
E.G.
INSULIN PRODUCTION
KNOCKOUT MICE
BT COTTON
ANTI-FREEZE STRAWBERRIES
PLASTIC CONSUMING BACTERIA
MUTAGENS
An agent that can cause mutations, this can take the form of chemical substances, electromagnetic radiation and naturally occuring agents.
Electromagnetic radiation: UV rays and x rays can be obtained from the sun. UV rays are made from the hot surface of the sun and caused by atomic excitation while X rays are commonly produced in x-ray tubes by accelerating electrons through a potential difference and targeting them on a material (for e.g. tungsten).
Chemical radiation: nitrite (food products), alcohol, tobacco. Those chemicals can be incorporated within the dna and can cause multiple replication errors such as mispairing and protein structure and function.
Naturally occurring: Viruses, bacteria, fungi and gases like radon. Organisms can be exposed to gases daily like humans in urban areas being exposed to radon gas. eject its dna into our cell and cause more virus production or inject a chemical that has similar effect to chemical mutagens.
Point mutation
nonsense: insert a base between other bases or delete a base which causes dna frameshift and ultimately causes different amino acids and maybe different proteins
missense: one base to change to another. Sickle cell anemia
silent: change a base but have no affect towards the amino acid or protein formed.
neutral: different amino acids but that doesn’t always affect the protein outcome.
Chromosomal mutation
duplication: segment of a chromosome being duplicated, this affects gene dosage causing individuals to have down syndromes
inversion: segments being swapped around and joining other pairs, this results in reproductive issues within the gametes but does not affect the somatic cells
Deletion: delete a whole segment of a chromosome and affect an individual's physicality and intellect.
translocation: chromosomes merging together hence causing infertility and cancer.
DNA segments
Coding regions of the dna have instructions to build protein, however non-coding regions control gene expression and depict the individual’s phenotype.
Effect
gene flow: transfer of certain genes in a gene pool whether it is through mutation or interbreeding.
Genetic drift: relative frequency of certain genes in a gene pool owing the chance to random occurrences causing death of some alleles, for e.g. stepping on an ant population.
Gene pool: A gene pool is a collection of genes within a species or population.
Module 7
Antibiotics
Antivirals
PATHOGENS
Prion: isfolded proteins that have the ability to alter other proteins, causing diseases in the brain, invariably fatal, non-living, non-cellular, acquired by eating contaminated meat, very small.
Virus: protein coat around the dna or rna, non-living, non-cellular, hijacks cellular processes like protein synthesis, 2nd smallest, can be called a bacteriophage, can be enveloped or not.
Bacteria: cellular/living prokaryote which means no membrane bound organelles, cell wall, flagellum, smaller than most human cells.
Fungi: eukaryotic = membrane bound organelles, cell wall, ranges in size (5-100 um), produces spores that can join and grow together to form hyphae and mycelium.
Protozoans: o cell wall/ flagellum, eukaryotic = membrane bound organelles, complex, can be micro or macroscopic, ranges from 1- 500 um.
Macroparasites: ndoparasite (live within the body), ectoparasite (live outside the body), seen w naked eye, complex and multicellular.
E.g.
Prion - Kuru, Mad Cow disease, CJD
Virus - Lettuce Mosaic Virus, influenza, covid.
Bacteria - Salmonella
Fungi - Tinea (Athletes foot)
Protozoan - Malaria
Macroparasites - Elephantiasis, bollworm, moth
Transmission
Direct - person to person contact
Indirect - surface touching, everything that is direct is not.
Vector - disease carried by an animal (mainly) but is not affected by it. For e.g. bats, rats, cats.