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Airworthiness 1, Airworthiness pt2 blehhhh, Certification, Type…
Airworthiness 1
Thrust reverses
installed on AC to reduce landing roll, mainly for
wet and icy runways
or if ATC requests
braking to vacate the runway
before wet braking line
wing mounted:
unsafe
if deployed
in flight
(not typically certified for this)
tail mounted: still
controllable
if deployed in flight
origin and legal basis
after ww2 increased aircraft capability and international air traffic:
need for comprehensive legislation
International Civil Aviation Organisation
(ICAO)
52 countries signed
Chicago Convention (CC)
on ICA on 7/12/44'
UN specialised agency
came into existence 4/04/47' after CC was ratified by 26 states
permanent body in charge
with admin of the principles laid out in the CC
CC
: 96 articles, defines privileges and restrictions of all Contracting States and provides for the adoption of International Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPS)
national legislation
each country gives effect to CC by
own legislation
UK:
Civil Aviation Act
82' amended with experience
issued in the
Civil Aviation Publication
CAP 393: Air Navigation: The Order and the Regulations
aircraft and engine regulations by application of certification specs (CS-25 and Engine CS-E respectively)
UK:
Civil Aviation Authority CAA
Engines
type approval engine testing
those to demo continued safe op during
abnormal operation
(Fan Blade Off, Large Bird Strike)
tests to v
alidate mathematical models
some
events out of regulations
ie foreign object damage
validation plan
9 dev engines + specialist modules
first tests
establish basic architecture and functional aspects of engine
tests progress
, parts become more production versions, more emphasis on endurance and cyclic testing
twin engine AC engines will have
Extended Twin Operation ETOPS
(3000 cycles test) at time of certification
some
engines continue testing after certification
to amass cycles and hours ahead of in service engines (look into future behaviour
cycles build
time delay
between part definition, manufacturing and entry into
Finished Parts Store FPS
for assembly
to
meet test dates
parts need be finished 6 months prior to milestone test
tests must be confirmatory
, places importance on mathematical models and expertise of designers and support engineers to ensure parts are flight worthy
failure to satisfy requirements
: expensive, money and reputation
tests to
demonstrate commercial acceptability
(fuel consumption, durability, accessibility)
those to demo acceptability during
normal operation
engine documentation (comparable for A/C)
TC (ETCDS)
installation instructions
(engine limitations and tolerances for each airframe interface)
operating instructions
(normal/emergency conditions, incorporated into aircraft flight manual)
maintenance instructions
(on/off- wing maintenance, lists life limitations
overhaul manual
(complete strip, repair and rebuild of engine and its modules)
Airworthiness pt2 blehhhh
status of an aircraft, engine, propeller or part when it conforms to its approved design and is in a condition for safe operation
safe operation
: freedom from an unacceptable risk of injusry to persons or damage
trying to show design (plan/drawing to show look/function or workings of an object before it's made) is good and achieves safety
initial airworthiness
getting to a point of being safe
continuing airworthiness
keeping design safe
requirements
ICAO
part of the UN
, establishes
international regulatory standards
which form the basis of the contracting states regulatory systems
every country wishes to undertake
international flights
must be a contracting state to ICAO
EU member
countries are the
contracting states
not the EU (EASA)
19 annexes
published containing Standards and Recommended Practices (
SARPs
)
each government
enacts specific legislation to regulate their industry based on the
SARPs
everyone needs to be on the same page so in 44' Chicago Convention
responsible bodies
state of design:
jurisdiction over the organisation responsible for the type design (where it was designed and certified)
state of manufacture
: jurisdiction over the organisation responsible for the final assembly of the aircraft (wherever it is being assembled)
state of registry
: state on whose register the aircraft is entered (carries that country's flag)
state of operation
: state which has issued the operating certificate (where the airline or owner operates the aircraft)
Annexe 8
Airworthiness of an AC
design aspects of the appropriate airworthiness requirements
type certification (prove safety)
production (SARPs)
certificate of airworthiness (AC conforms to type design)
continuing airworthiness
regulatory framework
civil aviation authorities
European Union Aviation Safety Agency EASA
Federal Aviation Administration FAA
UK Civil Aviation Authority CAA
Bilateral Aviation Safety Agreements (BASA)
provides technical cooperation between national civial aviation authorites
accept certifcation activities with limited or no technical involvment
accept approvals and findsings made by partners
improve harmonisation of standards
mechanism
to get trusted parts from other nations
Application for TC or change
consists of
description of the design
intended use
proposed TC basis, amendment versions of the CS (which CS you're gonna follow)
Proposed Compliance Demonstration Items (CDI)
Means of compliance
for large AC should be done in 5 years as they wanna make changes, new safety rules etc which you'd have to integrate
for light AC, 3 years
unsafe condition
AMC 21A.3B(b)
exists if there is factual evidence (service, experience, analysis or test) that
event results in
fatalities
,
loss of AC
,
reduced capability
of AC or crew to cope with adverse operating conditions
unnaceptable risk
of serious or fatal injury to
persons other than accupants
design features
intended to minimise effect of survivable accidents are
not performing intended function
Certification
specification
standards
to achieve AW
basis
for initial certification and continued AW
standard
shows compliance
of products, parts and appliances
intends to
ensure a level of safety
, realted to practicability and acceptability
sufficiently
detailed and specific
to indicate the conditions under which certifications will be issued
balance
between
cost
and
safety
(adding more redundance = spenny)
EASA
CS-25: large aeroplanes (paying operator money to fly on AC without knowing anything abt it, high safety req)
design and construction
divided into:
general, control surfaces, control systems, landing gear, personnel and cargo accommodations, emergency provisions, ventialtion and heating, pressurisation, fire protection, miscellaneous
CS-23: normal category aeroplanes (flying school, personal planes)
CS-31HB: Hot Air Balloons
CS-29: Large rotorcraft
CS-E: Engines
UAS: no specific one but still has standards
processes all the same, since 23 smaller and not loads of passengers, EASA made a simplified set of requirements for design, production and certification
bodies that issue type certificates
USA: FAA
Canada: Transport Canada
UK: CAA
Brazil: National Civil Aviation Agency of Brazil
EU: EASA
smaller bodies accept type certificates from the above big bodies bc it's expensive and complex
Part 21
Initial AW
B Type Certificates
D Changes to Type Certificates
improvement mods
mods to change purposes of plane
G Production Organisation Approval
standard of airplane and parts that go into manufacture are viable
H Airworthiness Certificates
can be obtained with TC and other required things
J Design Organisation Approval
standards for design organisation
Type Certificate
Part 21B
issued document to
define the design
of an AC type, and
certify
the design
meets
the appropriate
AW requirements
of the State of Design
process to establish that particular design fullfilled
current prevailing airworthiness requirement for safe conduct of flights under
all normally conceivable conditions
according to practicality and acceptability (don't want to hinder function/ability)
type design
aircraft, engines and propellers
conform to certification specification
consists of drawings, specifications, materials, processes and manuals
once TC achieved, CoAW can be issued but if TD is changed it becomes invalid
demo of capability
: any org applying for TC shall demo its capability by holding a
D
esign
O
ganisation
A
pproval
(Part 21.A.14)
Design Organisation Approval DOA
Part 21J
requirements
Key Post Holders (ppl)
Management System
Design Handbook (your steps to ensure consistency)
Design processes and standards
certification processes
Sufficient staff - qualified and experienced
Coordination between departments
Partners and Subcontractors
DOA may
subcontract
design work to outside org with more expertise
DOA
maintains authority and responsibility
for demonstrating compliance with Certification Specifications
subcontractor
should be
integrated
into
safety
mangement element
scope and responisbilities agreed through
Work Share Agreements
Changes to TC Part 21D
originate from
: service bulletins, supplemental TC or repairs
must comply w AW Standard and be approved
classify as
: minor or major
Design Approval Holder (DAH)
has privilege to classify certain changes
Design Management System
21.A.239
DO
must establish, implement, and maintain a
DMS
with clearly defined accountability and lines of responsibility that includes
safety management
element
proactive
rather than reactive
design assurance
element,
AW function
(checking you're following rules in handbook)
control and supervision of design and design changes
design complies w type certification basis
all responsibilities are properly discharged
compliance of procedures independently monitored including a feed-back system
independent checking function of the showings of compliance
AW function
office
of AW
admin
side of approval
liaison
between DOA and CAA
manage
: design handbook, certification programme, reports etc
independent verification
function to demonstrate compliance with AW requirrements (someone seperate checks designer)
verification of demo
by someone that did not create the compliance data
verification shown by
singing compliance docs
, including test programmes and data
C
ompliance
V
erif.
E
ngineers not involved in design
one CVE for each subject area - structures, aerodynamics etc
CVE hold professional qualifcations with
experience
may be subcontracted
independent monitoring function
to verify compliance P21 requirements and adequacy of the
DMS
(someone seperate checks designer)
ensures adequacy of DMS
activities for compliance and proper performance, including subcontracted design activities
monitoring plan
to show complex objective review through scheduled independent audits, inspections, reviews/
monitoring staff
must be independent
of the activities; function, procedure, or products being monitored
non-compliance
root causes and contributing factors identified, corrective action defined and followed up
feedback
provided to the management of the DO
Continuing AW
owner/operator responsible
AC maintained in AW condition, CoAW remains valid, AC maintened to maintenance programme
Type Certification Process (new/change)
phase 0
definition and agreement of the working methods with the applicant
Applicant
show capability, DOA (P21J)
Authority
appoints
Product Certification Manager
for the project and organises a team of experts in appropriate disciplines
phase I
technical familiarisation and establishment of Initial Certification Basis
more detailed tech information provided to enable definition and agreement of initial
Certification Basis CB
(rules design must meet) in phase II
phase II
agreement of the ceritification programme and level of involvement
Authority
determines
CB
according to ammendment of AW CS at time of application
includes
AW requirements
Operational Suitability Data (OSD)
(all data needed to operate in service, how pilots fly/ cabin crew works, min equipment list etc)
Environmental
protection requirements
certification programme
agreed (design here, build prototype here, flight test there etc, stick to this)
the CP is the
doc to manage and control
the evolving product type design or OSD, and process of compliance demo and its verification by EASA when required
identifies
relevant
personnel
who make decisions and who
interfaces
with Authority
project
schedule
including major milestones
subcontracting
arrangements for design and/or production
Means of Compliance Checklist
Means of Compliance Checklist
produced
Compliance Demonstration Items
agreed with Authority and DO, demonstrating method of compliance
group of compliance demo activities
(evaluations, tests, inspections) and data, used by the Authority when performing assesment to determine LoI through risk based approach
Authority Level of Involvment LoI
, key points based in CDI that Authority wants to see/ be involved with
allows Authority to
detemine
what points of cert. process need
greater oversight
assess likelihood of unidentified non-compliance
with TC basis, OSD ceritifcation basis or environmental protection requirements
risk based approach
based on novelty, complexity and criticality of design
potential impact
of non-compliance on product safety or environmental protection
phase III
compliance determination
demo compliance with CB
and environmental protection requirements, provide Authority with means of compliance and declare it has been demo'd
Means of Compliance MOC
checklist: part of certification programme, lists applicable requirements and proposed mean of compliance
CS 25.1309 System Safety
components and systems must be designed so they
perform as intended
under aeroplane operating and environmental conditions
catastrophic failure
: extremely improbable, not result from single failure (10-9 flight hours
failure conditions result in
fatalities
, with loss of airplane or
pevention of continued safe flight and landing
hazardous failure
: extremely remote
large reduction in safety margins or functional capabilities
physical distress, excessive workload such that flight crew cannot be relied on to perform tasks accurately or completely
serious or fatal injury
to relatively small number of occupants other than the flight crew
major failure:
remote
reduce capability of AC or crew to cope with adverse op conditions causing significant reduction in safety margins, or functional capabilities
significant increase in crew workload or in conditions impairing crew efficiency or discomfort to the flight crew
physical distress to passengers or cabin crew, possibly including injuries
electrical wiring
interconnection systems assessed in accordance with reqs of CS25.1709
flight testing
determines
compliance with CB and environmental protection requirements
reasonable assurance AC, parts, appliances are reliable and function properly to be certified
Flight Test Operations Manual
defining flight test policies and procedures
function and reliability flight testing
done
before final design
approval (TC issuance
simulates
in service flight operations for new aircraft design (cold hot climates etc
provides
Authority
with reasonable assurance that an AC, its omponents and equipment are reliable and function properly
phase IV
technical closure and issue of the approval
applicant declares
it has shown compliance with TCB, OSD CB and environmental protectionr equriements as notified, and followed accepted cert. programme
no feature or characteristic has been identfied that may make product unsafe for the uses for which cert. is requested
applicant
submits declaration of compliance
to Authority
TC issue
document issued to define the design of an aircraft type and certify the design meets the appropriate AW reqs.
DO can now produce AC and have a CoAW issued for each aircraft
Wanna Fly?
Type Certificate
(TC)
signifies the aircraft, engine or propeller will be manufactured according to an approved design which is compliant with airworthiness regulations
issued for mark
of aircraft ie all A380s or all Trent 900
applicant must be approved
Design Authority (Design Organisation Approval)
manufacturer must be an
Approved Production Authority (Product Organisation Approval)
Type Certificate Data Sheet
(TCDS) associated with each Type Certificate
records
basis of certification, designation of each approved variant and general information concerning the design
type design
, what's being certified
operating limitations
(speed,temps etc)
data sheet
for airworthiness and emissions
applicable
type-certification
basis
(applies regulations during time of application
environmental
protection requirements
other
conditions or limitations
prescribed for the product by the certifying authorities
Approval
of Products (AC, eng, prop) in accordance w Part 21, ratified by issue of TC or Restricted TC (RTC) by CAA
of Articles (equipment) in accordance with Part 21, ratified by issue of
UK Technical Standard Order Authorisation
(UKTSOA)
Restricted TC
aircraft that are
airworthy
but
don’t meet
full civil
standards
allow for
safe op of aircraft under limited conditions
(non-commercial, special use eg ww2 bombers for airshow, agriculture, firefighting)
Application
made well in advance, 3 yrs for engine more for A/C
specifies satisfied regulations at time of cert. + special provisions (craft specific unique reqs.) = the minimum to be achieved
successful completion of all testing
Compliance Statements
submitted and TC granted
Type Approval
(separate certs for engine and AC)
AC tested with certified engines so AC TC typically after eng / pre-certified engs can be flown on flying test bed where aircraft is not dependant on that engine
specifies method of compliance, reqs are min standard but method is agreed with certifying authorities in compliant statement
airworthiness
measure
of an aircraft's suitability for safe flight
aircraft must be designed, constructed and operated in compliance with the appropriate
airworthiness regulations
rules updated from accidents and incidents
Certificate of Airworthiness (CoAW) and AW Review Certificate and Noice Certificate
issued when aircraft shown to meet applicable requirements and deemed AW
AC registered
and
shown
to be
safe
to fly within contracting state airspace if issued CoAW
issued
by competent authority of the state for a specific aircraft declaring that it is fit to fly
to facilitate
import and export
of AC, the
State of Registry
recognises an CoAW by another Contracting State subject to its AW reqs being equal or above the ICAO minimum
since 08' AC has non-expiring CoAW, remains in force by annual issue of AW REview Certificate (AWR) issued by an approved company
existing AC, cross validated between countries enabling
inter-country flight
pre 08'
Certificate of Maintenance Review
every 3 years
aircraft requiring registration
has to have
approved design complying with AW reqs and has a type certificate
been inspected during construction ensuring compliance with the approved design, airframe and engine
been flight tested, as necessary, to determine compliance with approved design
a flight manual
sidenote
: registration granted for individual AC eg G-XLEA
Modifications
can
modify past type test
but need to validate changes to same level of integrity
change approved against
same certification
rules as the
original
cert
equivalent compliance must be shown, Type Test becomes
Modification Test
if
changes
too
fundamental
agency insists product complies with latest certification rules if changed since original approval
changes
must be
recorded
in aircraft or engine log book
Whomps
Accidents/Incidents
Accident
: anyone is killed or seriously injured/ AC incurs damage or structural failure/ AC is missing or completely inaccessible
Incident
: an occurrence associated with the operation of an AC which affects or could affect the safety of operation (taken as srsly as accident but outcome less disastrous)
Serious Incident:
occurrence involving circumstances indicating that an accident nearly occurred
controlled flight into terrain only marginally avoided
gross failures to achieve predicted performance during take-off or initial climb
fuel quantity requiring the declaration of an emergency by the pilot
AC structural failures or engine disintegrations not classified
formal investigation
cause
of accident/incident must be
identified
primary objective
is prevention but can result in prosecution
if
regulations are amended
, AC/engines in design and test phase could see increased costs, litigation, and delays into service
cooperation
in understanding and rectifying problem from the whole industry, market rivalry is suspended, knowledge shared nad actions to maintain safe operation harmonised
failures
despite rigorous design analysis and testing, parts and systems can
fail even when properly maintained
quality failure in manufacture or assembly
environment not properly understood
use
FMEA
to ensure criteria for allowable effect are met
regulating authorities require quantified risk (
risk = probability x consequence
)
reduce consequence
- design such that any failure would be safe and the aircraft can continue to be controllable and land safely
redundant
systems and structures
containment of high energy debris
, by incorporating protective casings for fan or turbine blade failure
ensure casing is not penetrated
released blade cannot impact trailing blade promoting failure causing multiple blade failures
reduce probability
design codes
quality control
impose safe life on parts when energy to great to devise containment means
component has
Declared Life (DL)
and must be removed at or before life is achieved
Life Limited Part LLP
has
controls for low probability failure
: control of source and method of manufacture, traceability back to source and unique component serial numbers
unique numbers
recorded
in
engine
build
bill of material
, easily identify which engines have these parts in it
parts
verified
at engine build
controlled and certified repair
and
overhaul
techniques
mandatory inspections
when removed from the engine to
validate predictions
on growth or creep
lives demonstrated
by cyclic rig test or substantiated material databases at appropriate conditions
failure of LLP
must not
result in
catastrophic event
operator responsible for
in service life management
, recording service history and number of flights and take offs
Engineering Failure Analysis shows likely
hazardous effects
for these parts (thus DL of X thousand cycles)
safety action process
TC holder must
report
failure/malfunction/defect or other which has resulted or may result in an unsafe condition to
Regulating Authority (RA)
report no later than 72 hours unless exceptional circumstances
TC holder
propose
corrective action and/or required inspections, submit details to the Agency for approval
Airworthiness Directive
issues or adopted by RA that mandates actions to restore an AC or engine to an acceptable level of safety
AD
contains
ID of unsafe condition
ID of affected aircraft
actions required
compliance time for required actions
date of entry into force
AD
outcomes
short term
mitigation
operational restriction or grounding
maintenance and/or inspection action
withdrawals or replacements
long term
solution
modification (preferred)
needs to be accomplished in a given timescale
further actions
mandated by regulator
Special Fly Time
Permit to fly
case where it's not possible for AC to have a type certificate but needs authority to fly
A380 built in Toulouse but must fly to Hamburg to have seats and air conditioning systems fitted
not a complete A380 so can't be granted a certificate of AW hence needs permit
can fly on transport flight but can't carry any passengers
Granted For
development
to show
compliance
with regulations or certification specifications
design organisations or production organisations
crew training
production
flight testing
of new production aircraft
flying aircraft under production
between production facilities
flying aircraft
for customer acceptance
delivering or exporting
the aircraft
flying the aircraft
for Authority acceptance
market survey
, including customer's crew training
exhibition
and air show
vintage
aircraft
orphaned
aircraft
no approved organisation or manufacturer remains responsible for supporting the type design
og manufacturer gone out of business or
they stopped supporting that specific model, and
no one else has formally taken over the Type Certificate
issued to AC that doesn't meet ICAO certification standards subject to satisfying
prescribed restrictions
E Certification
difficult for
private experimental AC
to achieve approval due to bureaucracy
11/15' CAA and RAeS formulated means for experimental AC to get a
Permit to Fly with reduced bureaucracy
individual or small group can
become their own Design Authority
subject to conditions
qualified flight engineer
needed
to oversee design and construction of the aircraft
makes light aircraft more
accesible