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Unit 1, Unit 2, Unit 3, Unit 4, Unit 5, Unit 6, Unit 7 - Coggle Diagram
Unit 1
Renaissance
- rediscovery of Greek/Roman texts
- creation of humanism - belief in the unlimited potential of man
- individualism - belief and focus on the individual and individual achievements
- started in Italy, Italian city states, Florence
- key thinkers: Machiavelli's The Prince (how kings should rule, the end justifies the means, do whatever it takes to maintain power), Castiglione's The Courtier (how men and women should act, should be educated, polite, talented in sports, read books, women should be polite/charming, role is at home)
- art saw use of techniques like perspective, use of geometry/symmetry, created depth, presented an idealized version of people
- key artists and artwork - Michelangelo's David, School of Athens by Raphael, Da Vinci
- creation of printing press spread Renaissance ideas, Gutenberg bible
Northern Renaissance
- ideas spread out of Italy to the North, also known as Dutch/Flemish Renaissance
- key diff: put more focus on religion
- art focused on scenes from daily life
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New Monarchs
- Isabella and Ferdinand (Spain), laid roots for absolutism, wanted complete religious conformity = kicked out a bunch of Muslims
- financed expeditions of Columbus who found West Indies/Americas, specifically Caribbean
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Unit 2
Protestant Reformation
- began with Luther, was looking for key to salvation, found it through reflection and study = salvation through faith alone
- Luther saw corruption in church, especially with Tetzel and the selling of indulgences for ulterior purposes like building the Basilica
- in response nailed 95 theses to church door, ideas, Protestant ideas began to spread bc of printing press
- major beliefs: salvation through faith alone and NOT good works, only two sacraments (baptism and communion), priesthood of all believers (church should not be hierarchical and confined to educated clergy), all vocations have merit (compared to emphasis/"better" of monastic life), denied authority of pope = encouraged to read the bible, clergy could marry
Britain
- Henry VIII was originally very catholic, against Protestantism and got title "Defender of the Faith"
- priorities shifted as he wanted to solidify his line, was married to Catherine of Aragon but she didn't give him a son = wanted to annul marriage
- Pope Clement VII would have given annulment, but Catherine was related to Charles V who was powerful + had troops in Rome = denied
- Henry VIII went against pope and annulled anyway and married Anne Bolyn, got parliament to pass Act of Supremacy
- Act of Supremacy = put the king as the head of the church, no longer recognized pope's authority, king had complete control over the church = created the Anglican Church
- Henry VIII still kept Catholic practices through Six Articles
- got son, Edward - under him Protestantism increased, then died young = Mary Tudor took over and was trying to restore Catholicism
- then Elizabeth I, Henry VIIIs daughter stepped in and exacted religious toleration
- was a politique, concerned with national/state matters over religion, made religious policies ambiguous
- appeased both protestants (making sermon in English and allowing clergy to marry) and catholics (keeping the hierarchical form of church)
Calvinism
- major beliefs: believed that God was all knowing, therefore would know if people on Earth are saved or damned = predestination, also believed in theocracy and that should Christianize the state
- believed that the ones who were saved = elect
- thought that art, theater, dancing were distractions
- set up model town in Geneva = other Protestants looked on as guide
- spread to England (Puritans), France (Huguenots) and Scotland through John Knox (Presbyterians)
Thirty Years War
- overall increased tension and hatred religiously and politically
- major issues: political clash btwn the Habsburgs (who wanted centralization) and the German Princes (wanted sovereignty)
- was Protestant Union vs Catholic League
- Calvinism became increasingly popular, but German Princes didn't get option to choose Calvinism bc Peace of Augsburg only allowed for Protestant or Catholic
- started with Bohemian phase: Bohemia was city with religious diversity, but Ferdinand II didn't like and acted by closing Protestant churches = sparked war, but German princes were losing
- second phase = Danish, asked for help from Lutheran kings, got help from Danish, Dutch, and English but were still losing against Wallenstein
- Ferdinand II passed the edict of restitution which claimed that all protestant land was catholic land
- phase three = Swedish phase
- asked Adolphus for help who was strategist and had powerful and disciplined army = began to start winning, shifted tide
- phase four = French phase, Adolphus died suddenly so French in, combined with Dutch and Swedish forces were able to win against Catholics
- was under politique Cardinal Richlieu
- ended with Peace of Westphalia, first peace conference after war = marked new way of diplomacy
- pope attended but was basically ignored and didn't sign any agreements = showed increased secularization
- Dutch was recognized as independent, German princes got Calvinism as option and got a form of sovereignty = could wage wars and collect taxes = super divided
- France got Alsace Lorraine and emerged as strong power
Spain
- had king Philip II who was Catholic and intent on both expansion and spreading Catholicism/combatting Protestantism
- imposed inquisition (spread death and taxes) on Spanish Netherlands even though majority was already catholic = people outraged and began to rebel
- instructed Duke of Alva who responded by sending 20,000 troops to Netherlands = fully united against Spanish + converted to Calvinism in protest - later, Duke of Parma was more diplomatic and was able to gain back the loyalty of the 10 southern states
- northern states still wanted independence = known as Holland/Dutch
- Elizabeth I supported the Dutch Protestants bc didn't like Spain's aggression = Spain responded by sending Spanish Armada to Britain
- Britain was able to defeat Spanish Armada bc of agile ships = marked the beginning of Spanish decline
Conflict
- Luther's ideas spread to German nobles, peasants also took up ideas and began to become revolutionary in politics not just religion = German Peasants War
- Luther encouraged the nobles to suppress the rebellion = fostered a close relationship
- Luther was religiously radical but politically conservative, believed that a good Christian should know their place
- Charles V was against Lutheranism, and politically clashed with German princes who didn't want centralization - didn't get choice to choose what religion they wanted to be = German Civil War
- France per usual supported German disunity even though they were catholic
- ended with the Peace of Augsburg = German Princes could choose to be either Protestant or Catholic
Anabaptism
- believed that only adult baptism was right/correct not infant baptism
- separation of church and state
- inspired by priesthood of believers from Luther
- was seen as too radical by both Calvinists and Lutherans = was executed
Catholic Reformation
- popes shifted from Renaissance popes who were more focused on art to reformatory popes
- major goals: reaffirm catholic doctrine, reject Protestant/Lutheran values, get rid of corruption, instate reform, contain Protestantism
- had Council of Trent = reaffirmed Catholic doctrine - that needed both faith and good works to attain salvation, pope had authority, interpretation/teachings of bible by church were just as important as reading bible, monastic life was a better lifestyle
- got rid of simony (selling of church offices) as well as indulgences
- Holy See had to accept councils
- employed two counterreformation methods including: Baroque art - emotional, dramatic, glorifying religious art, was supposed to make worshipper feel something/feel God's power, used technique of tenebrism (dramatic light), "speak to faithful"
- employed St. Ignatius Loyola who after Spanish war with French had a turn of faith = established Inquisition
Inquisition: Loyola founded Society of Jesus, was super disciplined and devoted to both Church and Pope, effectively acted as a religious army
- had such duties as doing missionary work, acting as advisors to kings, and notably set up schools for upper-middle class boys
- another covenant = Ursuline Order for Nuns, was for women, similarly set up schools for girls
French Wars of Religion
- Concordat of Bologna which gave administrative power to king, signed by Francis I, could choose bishops, while church got power over councils
- Huguenots were increasing in France, nobility was part of it, thought they were part of the elect or superior
- Charles IX and Catherine de Medici did not like Huguenots = Medici planned and executed the St. Bartholomew's day massacre at Henry of Navarre's wedding = Catholics killed a lot of Huguenots and killing spread = started war
- war invoked a lot of destruction, to economy, to agriculture = gave rise to moderate catholics and Huguenots known as politiques who wanted to end fighting and get recognition for the Huguenots
- Henry III, Medici were killed = Henry of Navarre rose to throne
- was met with resistance from Paris so converted to Catholicism, passed Edict of Nantes which granted religious toleration for the Huguenots
Unit 3
Declining empires: Ottoman, Holy Roman Empire, Poland
- all powers lacked centralization and had diverse nationalities
-HRE: divided religiously bc of Protestant Revolution and politically bc of Thirty Years War and 300+ sovereign states, emperor lacked an army, leading states in power were Prussia and Austria
- Poland: had nobility that limited the power of the king, was elected by nobles, had representative diet but anything they passed had to be approved by nobles
- Ottoman: led by Suleiman the Magnificent, wanted to Vienna but was stopped by Germany, Austria, and Poland and began to decline
English Pre-Civil War
- experienced prosperity from commercial rev = increased middle class, colonies, capital
- House of Commons was made up of wealthy, landowning gentry
- major issues: was gentry vs king, gentry wanted to keep privileges like being free from arrest + wanted increased political power while king wanted control
- issue with Anglican church, Puritans wanted Presbyterian church where voices could be more heard while King wanted episcopal version (hierarchy and more control)
- started with James I and the True Law of Free Monarchies (kings should rule with divine right), opposed the puritans
- Charles I had similar views of divine right, but was in need of money = passed the Petition of rights which allowed parliament to consent to taxes + gave them due process
- Duke of Canterbury Laud imposed catholicism on Scottish through English prayer book = outraged and mobilized
- Charles I needed money from parliament = called long parliament which decided to execute Laud and put restrictions on the monarchy
Dutch Golden Age
- were super prosperous, leading commercially, established city of Amsterdam as number one trade center that was admired by Europeans
- shipbuilding business put them at the front of production, allowed for both selling and sailing/trading
- had a lot of excess capital, created Amsterdam Stock Exchange, and Amsterdam Exchange bank
- gov was controlled by wealthy oligarchs but had elected assemblies where could voice
- majority was Calvinist but was religiously tolerant
- Dutch Baroque Art = was financed by wealthy, depicted group/individual portraits, landscapes
- Webber described how finance/business and Dutch/Calvinism were interlinked/interconnected
Decline of Dutch
- occurred because of conflict with Britain and France
- Britain: imposed tariffs, passed Navigation Acts = prohibited Dutch as middlemen, engaged in naval warfare, posed economic competition bc of textiles
- France: also imposed tariffs, had costly war where had to flood Dutch lands bc France was invading super far, had to compete economically with jewelry industry
France, Henry IV and Louis XIV
- Henry IV passed Edict of Nantes = encouraging religious toleration
- created robe nobles/bourgeoisie and would sell offices to generate revenue = steps towards limiting nobility
- appointed Duke de Sully for finances = got rid of royal debt, built canals and roads
- nobles didn't have to pay taxes so still unfair
- was killed = Cardinal Richlieu (politique) stepped in to govern, continued to maintain German disunity
- sig. created intendant system, would replace nobles with robe nobles/royal officials
- still continued to have social and economic privileges even as political power was weakened
- when died left Louis XIV, was too young to ascend = Fronde happened where nobles were scrambling for power, violent rebellion = had to flee
- Bishop Bousset = created absolutism where king was sovereignty, had divine right, would answer to God if unjust
- Louis XIV rose back to power, became super powerful absolutist
- decreased power of nobles, put bourgeoisie in more positions of power
- had complete control over everything political - foreign policy, wage war, taxes, was known as sun king bc everything revolved around him
- did not appoint a chief minister
- appointed Colbert for finances = got rid of internal and external tariffs, put tariffs on imported goods = increased economic growth/production
- recognized power of art = Palace at Versailles which was symbol of power and cultural dominance
- revoked Edict of Nantes = 200,000 Huguenots fled and decreased population
Russia and Peter the Great
- before Russia was isolated, corrupt, backward, didn't have access to sea or ideas from Renaissance, Reformation, New World
- elected Michael Romanov to rule
- Peter the Great came into power
- main goals of: westernizing, modernizing, making Russia catch up
- visited Western Europe, Britain, Holland, learned about various fields/tech/customs
-improved agriculture through potato, created new strong army and navy, improved economy with skilled workers
-socially = men had to cut off beards, women got more freedoms
- wanted access to Baltic Sea but Sweden was obstacle = started Great Northern War and won against Sweden with new army (marked decline)
- serfs were basically slaves bc could be sold separately from land, reforms that instilled didn't benefit
- created St. Petersburg = window to west, restricted nobles (Boyeurs) power by making them buy expensive townhouses in St. Petersburg + had to serve in the civil service
Spanish Decline
- reached height of power under Philip II and then began to decline
- Causes: costly wars with Dutch and French (Spanish Succession), had line of successive bad leaders with misguided policies, had inflation from influx of gold and silver from colonies, had decreased population/agriculture/production
- was once known for commercial prosperity but began decline
Prussia and Austria
Austria: had Habsburg = powerful and ancient family line, had control over Austrian Netherlands, parts of Italy, Hungary, Bohemia
- were united by loyalty to Habsburgs + Catholicism - were tolerant of diff ethnicities
- Charles VI = created Pragmatic Sanction (had to make concessions) so that daughter Maria Theresa would inherit total empire
Prussia: had Hohenzollerns, power and old family, one of 7 who elected emperor
- had Frederick William/the Great Elector = wanted to increase strength of Prussia, created strong army that would protect territory + allow participation in balance of power politics, got loyalty of Junkers by giving control over serfs
Frederick William I: had similar goals, created army of 80,000, bc of increased militarization = new officer class
English Civil War/Interregnum
- two distinct sides arose, Cavaliers = royalists and loyal to the king, Roundheads = led by Oliver Cromwell, against king, wanted a constitutional monarchy
- Cromwell established New Model Army = strong and disciplined Protestant army
- won out and killed Charles I
- got rid of monarchy, House of Commons, Anglican church = established one party parliament with himself as leader
- pursued aggressive foreign policy - Navigation Acts and War with Dutch + crushed royalist Irish uprising
- was against radical political groups like Levellers (wanted universal male suffrage) and Quakers (who let women speak at meetings)
- when died son took over but wasn't popular = invited Charles II back to England
- restored monarchy, parliament, and Anglican church, but didn't have son
- brother James II would succeed but was catholic + had catholic son = would secure line of catholics kings
- two parties arose: Whigs = suspicious of Catholicism and against James II and Tories = embraced James II
- ascended anyway and passed policies that were bad for both Whigs and Tories
-Whigs and Tories then invited William of Orange and Mary (daughter of James II, protestant) to England
- had popular support + army = James II fled
- agreed to Bill of Rights which gave parliament ability to create laws, had to consent to taxes and arrests, had to meet often, became a constitutional monarchy
Ideologies
- Thomas Hobbes: wrote Leviathan, grew up during civil war and execution of Charles I = affected
- major beliefs: humans are bad, corrupt, chase power, without gov life would be unlivable, need a strong monarchy, people have to give up certain freedoms and liberties to gov
- John Locke: opposite, wrote The Second Treatise of Government, thought that humans were product of environment, experience, and education, gov should intervene as little as possible, people had natural rights (to life, property, liberty) and gov should protect them = if doesn't than should remove
Louis XIV's wars
- bc super powerful wanted to expand, pursued goal of "universal monarchy" and wanted Spanish New World Colonies
- could have easily beaten any of European countries singularly = led to creation of balance of power dynamic
- tried to invade Spanish Netherlands = blocked by Dutch
- when grandson inherited Spanish throne = threatened balance of power, Europe formed Grand Alliance to defeat (made up of Britain, Bradenburg, Austria, Dutch, Savoy)
- were able to defeat in war known as Spanish Succession
- had Treaty of Utrecht , Bradenburg became ruler of Prussia, France kept Alsace, Austria got Spanish Netherlands and Sardinia (traded with Savoy for Sicily)
Unit 4
Scientific Revolution
- original view was of Geocentricism - that the Earth was unmoving at the center of the universe
- was supported by "reputable" sources like Catholic church through scripture and Aristotle
- Church held view that people were special and unique bc of this
- old views = relied on witchcraft, astrology, alchemy, chance, and miracles
- Copernicus revolutionized and changed = wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, proposed a heliocentric view, with Earth moving/rotating
- Kepler built on work + other astronomers and came up with 3 laws
- orbits are elliptical
- time of orbit is proportional to how far away object is from orbiting object
- speed increases as you get closer to the sun
- Galileo wrote Starry Messenger where catalogued his findings with his homemade telescope, about how moon had impurities (refuted Aristotle and his pure heavens and impure Earth) as well as Jupiter having moons
- Galileo created universal laws with formulas for inertia and movement
- Protestant and Catholic opposed Copernican astronomy, called it dangerous bc it would have proved scripture wrong = no longer special and unique
- Inquisition (went after anyone who opposed the Catholic church) = instructed Bellarmine to order Galileo to come to Rome
- did and then had to sign a papal edict that stated that heliocentricism was false/didn't believe in such ideas
- Galileo ended up speaking out in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems - was neutral but still supported Copernicus
- believed that God gave people reason to use
- Inquisition convicted him of heresy = had to abandon Copernican theory but his ideas still spread
- Bacon came up with inductive method (through observation), observe, collect data, hypothesize, test
- Descartes came up with deductive method (everything is wrong until proven right, deduce through reasoning)
- both contributed to the Scientific method
Enlightenment
- philosophes = enlightenment thinkers and writers who expressed and supported enlightenment ideas, were mainly french but also international
- major beliefs: universe is controlled by natural laws that can be discovered and used
- opposed bigotry, superstition, and intolerance
- opposed the catholic church bc thought were spreaders of it + opposed view that ppl shouldn't be happy (suffer on Earth and enjoy Heaven)
- emphasized use of reason, apply it to social problems in order to come up with reforms
- stressed education as necessary for social progress
- stressed limited intervention/decreased restriction on everything as necessary for social progress (trade, education, religion, so many monopolies = mercantilism)
- believed in Deism
- countermovement bc so logical and reason heavy = Pietism
Peace, War = early and mid 1700s
General trends: shift from divine right to enlightened despotism
- fought wars for territorial reasons, had professional armies
Britain: was prosperous bc of commercial rev = importing goods like sugar and grain to support new lifestyle
-parliament/landed gentry had a lot of power
- Walpole led the Whigs and became the first prime minister
- in France after Louis XIV, Louis XV was weak = nobles gained back a lot of power
- was overall a stronger power but had debt from wars
War: France vs England bc fighting for/over New World Colonies
- Prussia vs Austria over control of Eastern Europe
- started with, Prussia and Frederick the Great not honoring Maria Theresa's ascension and took Silesia (had iron and linen)
- French supported Frederick the Great and Prussia
- England supported Austria
= War of Austrian Succession
- England took Louisbourg from France, and France took Madras from England
- conflict ended with Prussians winning, signed Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Prussia could keep Silesia, Britain and France gave back respective territories
- Austrian Chancellor Kaunitze wanted Silesia back so allied with Russia and France (by marrying off Marie Antionette)
- Britain allied with Prussia to maintain the balance of power = Seven Years War
- Austria and France won some victories but Peter III ended up withdrawing from war bc liked Frederick the Great
- Britain and Prussia won = signed Treaty of Paris and got to keep Silesia
Life, culture (Rococo, Neoclassical)
- before farmers had open fields, animals could graze, had crop rotation
- Agricultural rev = enclosure acts, new innovations like crop rotation of wheat, barley, turnip from Townshend, seed drill by Tull, and Bakewell = selective breeding of livestock
- other inventions include: continuous crop rotation, use of manure, the potato
- caused movement of population to cities, allowed for investment of capital into land
- potato as food staple, less civil wars, wars fought for strategic/territorial reasons = less civilians killed, less spread of disease
- produced huge surge in population bc more food, better medical care (Jenner and the smallpox vaccine)
- increased economic prosperity = could support more children
- people were marrying later bc wanted to become skilled in a trade, family was nuclear
- marriage was controlled by parents, restrictive
- cottage industry led to people becoming financially dependent = less arranged marriage
- Witchcraft surged during religious wars: bc of instability and unrest focused on powers of devil, targeted elderly/widowed women were easy scapegoat, thought women were more susceptible to temptation
- 40-60k killed
- died down when order was restored = focused on power of God, bc of Scientific Rev and Enlightenment were willing to embrace reason and logical explanations for events
- Rococo = depicted nobles at play, was lighthearted, used pastels
- Neoclassical = rose after Rococo, focused on Greek/Roman values of self-sacrifice, state servitude, symmetry
- depicted people as classical heroes
Ideologies
John Locke wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding = similarly went against Church (specifically in challenging view that all humans were bad/corrupt)
- stated that people were blank slate, that were influenced by environment, education, experience
- stressed education bc of potential
Scientific Rev cont.
- generally held that universe was governed by laws and patterns that could be determined through experimentation and confirmed with testing
- look for expressions of math
- had Sir Isaac Newton publish Principia, built on the works of Galileo (formulas for inertia and movement) and Kepler's laws of planetary motion to create math formula for gravity
- worked for terrestrial and celestial
- believed that there was no supernatural, people can deduce and use universal laws
Societies
- science went international, created communities
- notable was Royal Society of Science = became well known
Main Enlightened thinkers:
Voltaire = most well known/influential, opposed the rigidity of the French gov + religious intolerance, encouraged opposition to intolerance, bigotry, superstition
Diderot = editor for the Encyclopedia which detailed latest advancements in tech, science, gov, politics, believed that everything should be discussed, spread Enlightenment ideas
- opposed church by exposing scandals
Montesquieu = came up with social science by applying natural laws to gov, wrote Spirit of the Laws
- wanted to limit royal and absolutist abuse of power
- thought that the best form of gov would have 3 branches, executive, judicial, and legislative in order to prevent abuse of power
Rousseau = wrote Emile (children should have natural education, catered to them, should be encouraged to make own conclusions) as well as The Social Contract (people and the community had the general will which had sovereign power and that they enter into a social contract to execute the will with each other, gov should protect and serve the general will = if doesn't then overthrow)
- wasn't super logical, more inclined to emotion, pushed for social reform
Francis Quesney and physiocrats = economic reformers, opposed mercantilism and encouraged as little gov intervention as possible and laissez-faire economy
Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations
- believed that economy was self-regulating and governed by natural laws (like that of supply and demand)
- thought that there should be as little gov intervention as possible, gov should stick to maintaining national security, enforcing contracts
- people should be act in self-interest bc this would lead to competition and improvement (invisible hand of competition)
- opposed tariffs bc would hinder growth and trade
Women
- philosophes argued that women should have liberty and equality = should get more education, political rights
- recognized that preaching social reform while maintaining control over women is hypocritical
- much didn't change, upper class women might have gotten access to more education at best
- opposing groups, stressed that women were naturally different, that they belonged in domestic environment
Enlightened despotism
- applied Rousseau's concept of general will, gov exists to serve and protect general will
- didn't believe could handle democracy
- generally implemented:
- increased education
- getting rid of unreasonable customs
- reform of the law
- religious toleration
- most well known are Catherine the Great, Frederick the Great, and Joseph II
Catherine the Great:
- educated nobles daughters
- got rid of torture
- had limited religious toleration for jews
- tried to reform legal code but was stopped by nobles not wanting to give up privileges
- invited Diderot to Russia
- ended her reign as enlightened despot when Pugachev rebellion = had to kill serfs + gave nobility full control over serfs and estates
- pursued war contrary to philosophe belief against Ottomans and got Crimean peninsula
- grew economy by reforming bureaucracies and local gov
Frederick the Great
- established a unified and national law code
- invited Polish jews and Huguenots to Prussia
- got rid of torture except for harsh crimes
4. used scientific agriculture
- overall wanted to strengthen Prussia
- gained favor of Junkers by giving them control over serfs
- invited Voltaire to Prussia
Joseph II
- got rid of the robot (forced labor) and abolished serfdom + feudal dues
2. reformed judicial system
3. passed religious toleration for Jews and Christians and decreased church influence
- when died, policies were revoked by Leopold, robot and serfdom reinstated
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