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Chapter 2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Increase
      - Decrease
        
        changes
        
        Changes in quantity demanded
        
        the movement along a demand curve
        
        Changes in the price of a good lead to a change in the quantity demanded of that good
        
        Changes in demand
        
        the position of the entire demand curve shifts
        
        Increase
        
        A right shift in the demand curve
        
        1 more item...
        
        Decrease
        
        A left shift in the demand curve
        
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      - Definition: A curve indicating the total quantity of a good all consumers are willing and able to purchase at each possible price, holding (the prices of related goods, income, advertising, and ) other variables constant.
    - - Price and quantity demanded are inversely related
      - The quantity of a good consumers are willing and able to purchase increases(decreases) as the price falls(rises)
    - - Five demand shifters
        
        Consumer Income
        
        Normal Good
        
        A good whose demand increases when consumer incomes rise
        
        Airline Travel
        
        Inferior Good
        
        An increase in income reduces the demand for a good
        
        Bus Travel
        
        Prices of Related Goods
        
        Substitutes
        
        Goods for which an increase (decrease) in the price of one good leads to an increase (decrease) in the demand for the other good
        
        The price of COKE increases, (substitue) the demand for PEPSI increases
        
        Complements
        
        Goods for which an increase (decrease) in the price of one good leads to a decrease (increase) in the demand for the other good
        
        Beer and Pretzels
        
        Advertising & Consumer Tastes
        
        information advertising
        
        information about the existence or quantity of a product
        
        persuasive advertising
        
        promote the latest fad
        
        impact
        
        $40 buy 50,000-->60,000 units of good
        
        $40 buy 50,000 --> $50 buy 50,000
        
        Consumer Expectations
        
        stockpiling
        
        durable product -- laundry detergent
        
        Population
        
        the size and composition of the population
  - - - the number of units of good X demanded
    - - the price of good X
    - - the price of a related good Y
    - - income
    - - the value of any other variable affecting demand
    - - Qx^d=6,060−3𝑃x
        
        Px = 2,020 - 1/3Qx^d
  - - - Total Consumer Value
        
        The maximum amount a consumer would be willing to pay
        
        the integral (or geometric area) under the demand curve from Q=0 to Q=Q*
        
        Total Consumer Value captures the subjective value consumers place on a good, while Total
      - Total Expenditure
        
        the rectangular area Pstar x Qstar
    - - e.g.: you value 2 liters of water at $8 and only have to pay $6 for it, you are getting $2 in value over and above the amount you have to pay for water -- this "extra" value
      - The area above the price paid for a good but below the demand curve
        
        Consumer surplus reflects the net benefit gained by consumers through market transactions, measuring their economic welfare.
        
        quantifies the objective monetary transfer
- - - - A change in quantity supplied
        
        The movement along the curve
        
        Changes in the price of a good lead to a change in the quantity supplied of that good
      - Supply Shifters
        
        Change in Supply
        
        Decrease
        
        Producers sell less of the product at each price
        
        Increase
        
        Producer sell more output at each given price
        
        Variables other than the price of a good
        
        Input Prices
        
        Cost Change
        
        As the price of Input rises
        
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        Technology or Government Regulations
        
        Cost Change /Natural Disasters/ Emissions Standards
        
        Number of Firms
        
        Additional Firms enter an industry
        
        more and more output
        
        1 more item...
        
        Substitutes in Production
        
        Technologies that are readily adaptable to serveral different products
        
        the price of cars rises
        
        1 more item...
        
        Taxes
        
        Producer Expectations
      - Definition: A curve indicating the total quantity of a good that all producers in a competitve market would produce at each price, holding input prices, technology, and other variables affecting supply constant
    - - The quantity supplied of a good
        
        The price of the good
        
        W
        
        the price of an input
        
        H
        
        the value of some other variable that affects supply
      - A linear supply function
      - Inverse supply function
    - - 三者之间关系
        
        Total Revenue
        
        生产者通过销售商品获得的总收入
        
        Total supply Value
        
        供给曲线下方区域的面积，即生产某一数量商品所需支付的总可变成本
        
        生产者剩余(PS)=总收益(TR)−总供给价值(TVC)
      - Definition
        
        The amount producers receive in excess of the amount necessary to induce them to produce the good
        
        在供给曲线图中，生产者剩余表现为市场价格线以下、供给曲线（即边际成本曲线）以上的区域。对于线性供给曲线，这是一个三角形或梯形的面积
        
        供应商
        
        • 供货商的生产者剩余 = 实际销售价格 × 销量 - 总可变成本
        
        （即总收益与可变成本的差额）
        
        • 供货商的最低接受价格由其边际成本决定，若售价等于边际成本，生产者剩余为零。
        
        餐厅
        
        餐厅的潜在节约 = 原采购价格 - 供货商的最低接受价格
        
        （即原本供货商的生产者剩余部分）
        
        最大节约即餐厅将价格压至供货商边际成本时，完全获取其生产者剩余
        
        生产四个单位的边际成本分别为5、10、15、20元，市场价格20元时，生产者剩余为前三单位差价之和：15+10+5=30
- - - - 适用场景：常用于必需品（如食品、药品、房租）或紧急情况（如自然灾害后），以防止“哄抬价格”。
      - 必须低于市场均衡价格：
        若设定的价格上限高于当前均衡价格，则无实际影响（市场仍按均衡价交易）
        
        导致短缺
        
        需求量 > 供给量：消费者愿意购买的数量超过生产者愿意提供的数量
        
        结果：商品短缺，排队、抢购或配给现象出现
        
        市场扭曲的后果
        
        非价格竞争
        
        消费者通过排队、贿赂、抽签等方式获取商品，而非通过价格机制。
        
        黑市（Black Market）
        
        非法交易以高于价格上限的价格进行
        
        质量下降
        
        生产者可能降低商品质量以压缩成本（如减少房屋维护)
        
        长期供给减少
        
        低价抑制生产积极性，导致未来供给量下降（如房东不愿出租房屋）
    - - 在存在价格上限或其他市场干预时，消费者为获得商品或服务实际支付的全部成本，包括显性价格（法定价格）和隐性成本（如时间、精力、风险等）。
        
        Full Economic Price=法定价格+隐性成本（时间、风险、黑市溢价等）
      - The dollar amount paid to a firm under a price ceiling , plus the nonpecuniary price
  - - - 必须高于市场均衡价格：
        若价格下限低于均衡价格，市场仍按均衡价交易，政策无效。
      - 导致过剩（Surplus）
        
        当价格下限高于均衡价格时：
        供给量 > 需求量：生产者愿意提供的数量超过消费者愿意购买的数量。
        
        市场扭曲的后果
        
        政府干预需求
        
        资源浪费
        
        长期供给过剩
        
        抑制消费与创新