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Inglese Grammatica 1 - Coggle Diagram
Inglese Grammatica 1
Present Simple
Bare infinitive + ‘s’ in the 3rd person singular
When we use it: To express habits, generally valid actions, repeated actions or unchanging situations, emotions and desires:
- I smoke (habit); I live in New York (unchanging situation); Paris is a large city (generally valid
declaration); I love jazz (emotion and desire).
- To give instructions or directions:
Continue for one hundred meters, then turn right.
- To express a fixed appointment, present or future:
Our exam starts at 08.00
- To express the future, after some time words: after, when, before, as soon as, until:
He'll show you his artwork when you come next week.
- Habits >She smokes a lot.
- Repeated actions or events> I take the bus every morning.
- For something generally true > Water freezes at zero degrees Celsius.
- For instructions or directions> Open the envelope and read the letter.
- For fixed appointments> His brother leaves at 6pm
- To express the future> We'll call her before we leave.
- To say how often we do things> I get up at 7 o’clock every morning
- For timetables> The bus leaves at 10 o’clock
- Remember! The Present Simple is NOT used to express actions that are taking place at the time of speaking!
- Remember! We use the Present Simple for things that are true in general or that happen repeatedly
- We use it to speak about PERMANENT situations.
Present Continuous (or Progressive)
Present Simple of BE + base form + -ing
The Present Continuous is used:
- To describe an action in progress while you are speaking:
We are running in the park.
- To describe an action that is happening in this period, but non necessarily at the time of speaking:
She’s reading a wonderful book about the Arthurian legend
- The Present Continuous is used to talk about an action that has not yet been completed or finished
- To describe an action or event in the future, which has already been planned or prepared: They’re going to the mountains next Friday.
- To describe an event or temporary situation: She usually sings in the band, but she's playing the keyboards tonight
- To speak about a trend: More and more people are using Tik Tok.
- Remember! We use the Present Continuous for things happening at or around the time of speaking.
- We use it to speak about TEMPORARY situations.
Stative Verbs are verbs that are not generally used in the progressive form because they refer to a state
rather than an action or a process. The table below shows the main stative verbs:
Senses /perceptions
- feel
- hear
- see
- smell
- taste
Opinion
- assume
- believe
- consider
- doubt
- feel (think)
- find (consider)
- suppose
- think
Measurements
- contain
- cost
- fit
- hold
- measure
- weigh
Other
- look (resemble)
- seem
- be (in most cases)
- have (possess)
Exceptions
Perception verbs (see, hear, feel, taste, smell) are often used with can: I can see... These verbs can be used in the progressive form but it changes their meaning
Mental states
- forget
- imagine
- know
- mean
- notice
- recognize
- remember
- understand
Emotions / desires
- envy
- fear
- dislike
- hate
- hope
- like
- love
- mind
- prefer
- regret
- want
- wish
Difference Between Stative and Non-Stative Verbs
- This dress looks very pretty. (perception of dress qualities)
- Sarah was ill, but she's looking better. (her health is improving)
- He has a red sports car. (possession)
- He's having lunch with me. (He is having a meal)
- I can see Silvia in the pool. (perception)
- I'm seeing Silvia for dinner. (we plan to meet)
Remember! Some verbs are usually not used in the progressive form. Most of these are STATIVE verbs, because they refer to a state, rather than an action or a process, therefore they are used in the Simple tenses.
Regular & Irregular Verbs
Before speaking about the Present Perfect Simple, we need to review the REGULAR and IRREGULAR verbs
What is a REGULAR Verb? If a verb is regular, the Past Simple and the Past Participle both end in -ED.
- For example: WANT becomes WANT-ED
What is an IRREGULAR Verb? When the Past Simple and the Past Participle do not end in -ED, the verb is irregular
- Remember! At the end of most grammar books, you will find a list of the most common irregular verbs, similar to the one above.
- The INFINITIVE is the 1st column, the PAST SIMPLE is the 2nd column and the PAST PARTICIPLE is the 3rd column.
Rule: With some irregular verbs, the Infinitive, the Past Simple and the Past Participle are the same.
- Infinitive 1st column : Cut Hit Put
- Past Simple 2nd column: Cut Hit Put
- Past Participle 3rd column: Cut Hit Put
Rule: In other irregular verbs, all three forms are different
- Infinitive 1st column: Eat Know Write
- Past Simple 2nd column: Ate Knew Wrote
- Past Participle 3rd column: Eaten Known Written
Rule: Other irregular verbs have the same Past Simple and Past Participle (but a different infinitive)
- Infinitive 1st column: Build Meet Tell
- Past Simple 2nd column: Built Met Told
- Past Participle 3rd column: Built Met Told
Pronuciation of -ED
The -ED at the end of regular verbs and adjectives is often difficult to pronounce. Here is a table that will explain it!
- If the infinitive of the verb finishes in: D, T
The -ED is pronounced /id/
Example: wanted is pronounced /want-id/
- If the infinitive of the verb finishes in: C, CH, GH, K, P, SH, SS, TH, X
The -ED is pronounced /t/
Example: kissed is pronounced /kiss-t/
- If the infinitive of the verb finishes in: B, G, L, N, R, S, V, W, Y, Z
The -ED is pronounced /d/
Example: loved is pronounced /lov-d/
Present Perfect Simple
Present Simple of HAVE + Past Participle
We use the Present Perfect Simple when we say that something HAS HAPPENED, usually NEW
INFORMATION:
- A fire alarm has gone off at the school.
- Anna has given up her job. She wants to become a painter!
When we use the Present Perfect Simple, there is a connection with NOW:
- Mary has lost her dog. She can’t find it. (she doesn’t have it now)
- He told me his address, but I’ve forgotten it. (I can’t remember it now)
Just, Already & Yet
We often use time words (just, already and yet) with the Present Perfect Simple
- JUST = a short time ago
‘Are you thirsty?’ ‘No, I’ve JUST had a glass of water.’
- ALREADY = sooner than we expected
‘Don’t forget to call your boss!’ ‘I’ve ALREADY spoken to him.’
- YET = until now. It shows the speaker is expecting something to happen.
- Use YET only in questions and negative sentences, and put it at the END of the sentence
‘Have they gone on holiday YET?’
‘I’ve written the letter, but I haven’t posted it YET.’
Ever & Never
When we talk about a period of time that continues from the past until now, a period which is NOT FINISHED at the time of speaking, we use the Present Perfect Simple.
We often use EVER and NEVER with the Present Perfect Simple to speak about a period of time that
continues from the past until NOW (a time which is not finished).
- ‘Have you EVER slept in an igloo?’ (in your life)
‘No, I have NEVER slept in an igloo.’ (NOT I haven’t never… DO NOT USE A DOUBLE NEGATIVE!)
- ‘Have you EVER been to Italy ?’ (in your life)
‘Yes, I have been to Italy three times.’
Time Words
When we talk about a period of time that continues from the past until now, a period which is NOT FINISHED at the time of speaking, we use the present Perfect Simple.
We can use some TIME WORDS to express a period of time that is not finished.
For example: this year, today, since lunch, this week are all periods of time which ARE NOT FINISHED at
the time of speaking.
- I’ve drunk three cups of tea, this morning. (this morning is not finished)
- ‘Have you read a lot, today?’ (today is not finished)
Prepositions
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of gerund verbs). Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not possible. One preposition in your native language might have several translations depending on the situation. There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English (literature) and learning useful phrases off by heart. The following pages contain rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English.
Remember! We say IN a cab, IN a car, IN a helicopter, IN a boat because you CANNOT WALK in them. We say ON a bus, ON a plane, ON a ship, ON a train because you CAN WALK in them.
Adjectives & Prepositions
Some adjectives need a preposition before their object. There doesn't seem to be a logical rule, I'm afraid! We just need to learn them. Here are some of the most common ones:
- famous for Italy is famous for its wines
- proud of She is very proud of her new job.
- interested in Tony is not very interested in politics.
- pleased with Anna is very pleased with her new dress.
- bad at I’m very bad at grammar
- good at Mike is very good at maths.
- married to My mother has been married to my father for 54 years.
- excited about We’re very excited about our trip.
- different from / to Whisky is different from Whiskey.
- afraid of She’s afraid of snakes
Verbs & Prepositions
Some verbs need a preposition before an object or another verb. The preposition is only grammatical, so it doesn't change the meaning of the verb. Here are some of the most common ones
- arrive at / in somewhere We arrived at the airport. / We arrived in London.
- belong to somebody This jacket belongs to John.
- borrow something from somebody I borrowed a pen from my colleague.
- concentrate on something / doing something I concentrated on studying at the weekend.
- depend on something / somebody It depends on the weather. / I depend on my friends.
- explain something to somebody The teacher explained the exercise to the students
- listen to something / somebody I listened to music.
- looking forward to I am looking forward to the holidays!
- pay somebody for something I paid the waiter for the coffee.
- succeed in He succeeded in passing his test.
- wait for somebody / something Wait for me! worry about somebody / something Don't worry about a thing
Adjective Formation
An adjective is a word or set of words that modifies (i.e., describes) a noun or pronoun. Adjectives give us more
information about people, places, animals and things and may come before the word they modify:
That is a cute baby.
She works for a very good lawyer.
His wife is an excellent cook.
They live in a beautiful house.
or follow the word they modify:
That puppy looks cute.
This technology is state-of-the-art.
You look very tired.
This July is extremely hot.
Some adjectives can be formed from nouns, verbs and even other adjectives by adding a prefix or a suffix. We can use suffixes to change nouns and verbs into adjectives, or to change the meaning of an adjective. Some suffixes have a general meaning while others simply transform words into adjectives. The suffix -less usually means without something while the suffix -ful usually means to have something, so adding them to a noun can create, for example, opposite adjectives. Not all words can be made into adjective pairs like this. It’s best to check your dictionary.
(with hope) hopeful ← hope → hopeless (without hope)
homeless (but not: homeful)
beautiful (but not: beautyless)
The suffix -ish changes nouns and adjectives into adjectives that mean like something.
Don’t be childish. (like a child)
The jacket is a bluish colour. (like blue)
For materials we can add -en to nouns to create adjectives that mean made of.
A wooden chair
A woollen jumper.
When added to a verb, -able creates adjectives that express ability.
Is the water drinkable?
Spelling Rules
We don’t normally add or take away letters, we simply add the suffix to the end of the word. However, there are some exceptions:
- We double the final consonant in words that have a short stressed vowel before the final consonant.
sun → sunny
- A -y at the end of a word changes to -i.
bounty → bountiful
- An -e at the end of a word is dropped when the suffix begins with a vowel, but -ee, -oe, -ye remain unchanged.
fortune → fortunate
agree → agreeable
- An -l is dropped before adding the suffix -ful to words that end in –ll.
skill → skilful
Conditionals
The Type 2 Conditional is used to refer to a time that is now or any time, and a situation that is unreal. These sentences are not based on fact.
The Type 2 Conditional is used to refer to a hypothetical condition and its probable result. In Type 2 Conditional sentences, the if clause uses the Past Simple, and the main clause uses the Present Conditional (would + bare infinitive). The two clauses are separated by a comma (|)
This kind of conditional sentence is different from the Type 1 Conditional because it is a lot more unlikely.
It is formed in the following way:
IF + Subject + Past Simple + | + Would + bare infinitive (Present Conditional).
Example:
- If I won the lottery, I would buy a bigger house. (but it is unlikely)
- If you studied more, you would pass your exams. (but you aren’t studying more)
Type 2 Conditional
You can also invert the order of the sentences, but in this case you do not put the comma (|) to separate the two clauses
- I would buy a bigger house if I won the lottery.
- You would pass your exams if you studied more.
In Type 2 Conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of “would” to express the degree of certainty about the result.
- If I won the lottery, I could buy a bigger house. (unreal possibility)
- If you studied more, you might pass your exams. (unreal possibility)
Type 3 Conditional
The Type 3 Conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is contrary to reality. The facts are the opposite of what is expressed. The Type 3 Conditional is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result. In Type 3 Conditional sentences, the if clause uses the Past Perfect Simple and the main clause uses the Perfect Conditional (would + Present Perfect) The two clauses are separated by a comma (|)
The Type 3 Conditional is used to refer to a truly hypothetical and unreal situation, because it is now too late for the condition or its result to exist. There is always some implication of regret with Type 3 Conditional sentences. It is formed in the following way:
IF + Subject + Past Perfect Simple + | + would + Present Perfect (Perfect Conditional)
- If I had known you were coming, I would have cleaned the house (but I didn’t know you were coming)
- If you had studied harder, you would have passed your exams (but you didn’t study hard enough)
You can also invert the order of the sentences, but in this case you do not put the comma (|) to separate the two clauses:
- I would have cleaned the house if I had known you were coming.
- You would have passed your exams if you had studied harder
In Type 3 Conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of “would” to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the result.
- If I had known you were coming, I might have cleaned the house (but I didn’t know you were coming)
- If you had studied harder, you could have passed your exams (but you didn’t study hard enough)