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Biodiversity and Conservation - Coggle Diagram
Biodiversity and Conservation
What is Biodiversity and conservation biology?
What is Biodiveristy?
the variety of life on earth from genes to ecosystems
and the evolutionary and ecological processes that sustain it
studied at 3 levels
Interspecific
Intraspecific
Community
Community/ecosystem diversity is measured as the number of different species assemblages
What is conservation biology?
Why do we need conservation biology?
Humans are a threat to biodiversity on a level previously unwitnessed in Earth's history
Conservation biology and similar disciplines are needed to inform and evaluate mitigation strategies and prevent loss
Scientific study of the status of Earth's biodiversity
Aim of protecting species, habitats and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction
multidisciplinary
drawing on sciences (including social sciences), economics, and natural resource management
How do we decide what to conserve?
PRIORITISATION
limited money and resources yet so many habitats and species in need of protection
conservation action and policy is not always underpinned by scientific evidence - government, stakeholder and societal priorities as well
Doesn't mean total human exclusion!
what motivates people to conserve?
Intrinsic value of biodiversity (moral, cultural, personal. etc)
Direct use of ecosystems (subsistence, income generation, ecosystem services)
Measuring biodiversity and species abundance
why are species the most common 'unit relating to conservation
More targeted based on that fact that the ecology of each species differs
Humans can grasp species as a unit more than larger groups such as families or orders for example
Methods and legislation are easier to design on a species level
how many species are there?
There are around 1.4 million described species
roughly 1 million species are metazoa
the majority of these are insects (especially beetles due to low extinction rates and specific lock-and-key reproductive mechanisms)
How can we find out the real number?
Direct estimation
sample all environments, characterise everything you find
current estimates suggest that this would take about 480 years! How many more would go exinct in that time!?
Indirect estimation
Extrapolate from known patterns/ trends
Expert estimations
ask taxonomic experts their opinions (opinions range from 3-100 million) - NOT IDEAL
Species-area relationships
number of species increases with size of geographic range
A smaller area harbours fewer species because extinction rates are higher
Diminishing returns
rate of increase in species richness, decreases with area
this relationship is often a straight line when both axes are logged
These relationships have been extrapolated to estimate global species numbers - e.g. deep seafloor in Northeast USA
Species accumulation/ rarefaction curves
how long does it take to discover a new species?
provide (probably) the best strategy to estimate biodiversity
The more time you spend sampling, the more species accumulate until there eventually is a plateau
Estimated asymptote = total number of phyla/ classes/ orders. etc (i.e. where the curve plateaus)
The ratio of:
genera:family
families:orders
orders:classes
classes:phylum
...are consistent
This relationship can be used to extrapolate the number of species (i.e. if you know the ratio of phylum:class, you can work your way up to species using the same ratio
why measure biodiversity?
assess biodiversity in an area
determine conservation priorities
monitor populations
identify and diagnose ecological problems
plan solutions (species/habitat management)
use education/ policy/ development/ research to resolve problems
monitor outcome - loop back to 4)
How do we measure biodiveristy?
species are often used as the unit of biodiversity
Species Diversity =
species richness
(the number of different species present in a given area)
crude species richness
number of species per unit area (e.g. hectare)
Undefined (such as political region, Texas, UK. etc)
alpha species richness
number of species within a habitat/ sample site
Defined by habitat type
Measured locally, at a single area
this site can be split into regions and sites
Most common
beta species richness
The change in species richness form one site to another (species turnover)
Quantifies the difference between sites within regions
gamma species richness
The number of species at a 'larger' regional spatial scale
Measured over regional scales
species evenness
(how evenly individuals are distributed among the different species)
the degree to which the number of individual organisms are evenly distributed between different species in the community
Diversity Indices
Combine number of species and species relative abundance
2 examples (common to use both)
Simpson's Diversity Index (D)
Indicates the probability of picking 2 organisms at random that belong to different species
emphasizes evenness
Lower D/ higher 1-D = more diversity
more sensitive to dominant/ common species - less influenced by rare species
Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H)
Quantifies the uncertainty in predicting the species identity of an individual that is taken at random from the dataset
Emphasizes species richness and species evenness
higher values = more diversity
Sensitive to rare species - gives more weight to species richness
Often more complex to interpret
Assumes all species are represented in a sample and that they are randomly sampled - this this always likely or even possible?
Diversity metrics are important but not the whole story
Other factors that might be important:
threat status
role in ecological community
contribution to ecosystem services
endemicity
nativeness
-tourism value
Species Abundance
what you need to GET RIGHT for conservation!!!
Declining species abundances/ local population sizes are common outcomes of exploitation, environmental modification
declining species abundance is a concern in terms of likelihood or extinction and ecological change
Population censuses
Identifying and describing important sites and estimating population size
Monitoring population changes/ dynamics, determining species habitat requirements, determining cause of species declines, monitoring habitat management
Census techniques
strategy depends on species life history, habitat, resources
Direct Counts
count all the plants, animals. etc
Easier where individuals are concentrated (e.g. migration spots)
Not easy
Point counts (corrected for detectability distance)
simplest form uses 2 recording zones
All animals at the point are detected
No immigration/ emigration during the count
observer presence could attract or disperse animals
Line transects
Linear version of point count - transect with 2 recording bands
Transect surveys are used in many contexts with lots of sophisticated analyses
Assumptions
constant rate of movement
Detectability doesn't change with distance/ vegetation/ species/ season
or changes in detectability can be quantified
Capture-mark-recapture
common strategy
Can provide good estimates of population size
Expensive/ time-consuming
Assumptions:
Marks are not lost
Marks don't influence survival or behaviour
All animals are equally likely to be caught
All animals are equally likely to survive to the next capture occassion
Marking techniques:
Numbered tags
Direct marking
PIT (Passive Integrated Transponder) Tags
Colour rings
Marks can also allow use to follow individuals through life and monitor movement
Census best practices
census over multiple years (before, during, and after impact for impact assessments)
Conduct multiple censuses within each site (startified to be representative of habitat types)
Census the area(s) most representative of the habitat to be studied (i.e. not near habitat edges)
Consider what could cause differences between time periods or sites and standardise where possible
weather, recorder, visibility, time of day, seson, clothing, human behaviour
Census at time of year most important for population (e.g. breeding season)
Sampling techniques vary by taxon
Plants/ sessile animals
Plankton
Amphibians/ reptiles
Fish
Birds
Terrestrial mammals
Terrestrial invertebrates
Biodiversity loss and biodiversity patterns
Shifting Baseline Syndrome (SBS)
Not an actual medical condition but gaining traction across environmental disciplines
Features in modern environmental literature
Increased out tolerance to environmental degradation
Affected us at individual and societal levels
Coined by Daniel Pauly in 1995
Environmental generational amnesia
Response framework to SBS
Environmental restoration
Rewilding to demonstrate historical baselines
Increased data collection
to better inform current and future generations on environmental change
Citizen Science!
Reducing the 'extinction experience' (the decline of people interacting with nature
Education
Biodiversiy Loss
Fully understanding themechanisms of biodiversity loss means understanding the grey areas
e.g. palm oil plantation are bad for biodiversity but can have positives for some people
effective policies to halt biodiversity loss require knowing which anthropogenic drivers are the most important direct causes
Anthropocene
The period during which human activity has been the dominant influence on climate and the environment
Species loss in context
it's not necessarily the fact that its happening, it's the rate at which it's happening
Scientists estimate that in the next 500 years, 75% of the species inhabiting Earth will go extinct
the current mass extinction has already begun with 865 known species already going extinct in the past 500 years
if we don't know what's there, we don't know what we're losing, and therefore we don't know what impact losing them will have
How is it happening?
Drivers
Indirect:
Demographic and sociocultural
Economic and technological
Institutions and governance
Conflicts and epidemics
Land/sea use change and direct exploitation = biggest drivers
Direct:
Land/sea use change
Direct exploitation
Climate change
Pollution
Invasive alien species
Etc
Millennium ecosystem assessment
Natural capital
putting a monetary value on biodiversity and the different services it provides for us
Habitat destruction and degradation
Destruction
natural habitat is damaged or destroyed until it is no longer capable of supporting the species and ecological communities
Causes of habitat destruction
Deforestation
the removal of trees to make room for human activities such as agriculture, construction. etc
Wildfire
Global warming may already be influencing fire seasons
warmer temperatures mean drier vegetation
Earlier spring extending fire season
More storms? More lightning strikes?
Can be part of natural processes with co-adapted organisms but usually not entire habitat burnt
Fires are getting hotter and more intense and there is less habitat for animals to move to
Urbanization
8.6 billion people by 2030
Desertifiaction
climate change and overexploitation of soils
Degradation
Habitat quality is reduced
May occur through natural processes such as drought and/or through human activities such as forestry, agriculture, and urbanization
Fragmentation
fragmentation in an organism's habitat
causes population fragmentation and ecosystem decay
leads to small population sizes
inbreeding and random genetic drift
loss of genetic variability
Reduction in individual fitness and population adaptability
lower reproduction and higher mortality
1 more item...
Edge effects
edge = the boundary between a species' habitat and another kind of habitat (usually disturbed or developed)
edges can be ecological traps
wide-ranging species need more space, alrger home range and so have more encounters with habitat 'edge'
some species can also be attracted to habitat edges (e.g. grazing species)
Isolation
barriers to reproduction that result from organisms occupation of distinct microenvironments in what otherwise, is the same location
affects larger genetics
climate change
will destroy habitat
Increased weather extremes will increase wildfires, floods and droughts
Sea levels will rise
Coral bleaching
Will change species ranges
climatic niche
the range of climatic conditions that a species experiences over space and time
Populations will go extinct in areas that become too warm/ dry
Populations could colonise areas that were previously too cold
Invasive species
plants, animals or pathogens that are non-native to the ecosystem under consideration
their introduction by humans causes or is likely to cause harm after it becomes naturalised
Invasive species are ranked as the second most serious threat to endangered species after habitat destruction
Particularly dramatic effect on islands
General characteristics of invasive species:
Generalists (diet and habitat)
rapid reproduction
rapid grwoth/ small body size
high dispersal
phenotypic plasticity
social/ gregarious
few natural predators, competitors, parasites, or diseases
invasive elsewhere
Increased globalisation facilitates arrival of IAS (Invasive Alien Species)
Animal/ plant imports and seaport/airport capacity
Dominant invasion vector
high income countries = imports, especially plants and pets
low income countries = air travel
Most countries have limited capacity to act against invasions
proactive prevention strategies are key
Threaten biodiversity
Outcompete native species
predation
introduce diseases
grazing/ browsing/ ecosystem engineering
disrupt food chains and alter predator-prey dynamics
hybridisation
Large economic impact
Impacts on human health
Over-exploitation
Commercial fishing is a key driver of marine habitat degradation
Damaging methodology (e.g. bottom trawls - habitat destruction)
Lethal impacts on non-target species - bycatch
Derelict fishing gear
Cascading effects on marine food webs
sheer size of the vessels and extraction amount - not sustainable
Bushmeat
Hunting of wild animals for food, typically in humid tropical forests
For both subsistence and cash
Major threat to mammals
Central African harvest is approximately 1 million tonnes (6 x maximum sustainable rate
Transmission of zoonotic disesases (Ebola, SARS, HIV)
“Wicked problems” – bushmeat is often a necessity for some, but is also being hunted for rich urban (and international!) markets.
Pollution
Nutrient loading (nitrogen, phosphorus)
Excessive nitrogen causes eutrophication of freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems
Acidification of freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems
Destroys key habitats such as saltmarshes
Impacts on carbon sequestration, nitrogen cyckine, fisheries protection, flooding
Greenhouse gases
Pesticides
Heavy metals
Oil
Litter
Waste management = big concern
Microplastics
people are consuming about 2000 of these a week and this is predicted to increase
Light
Noise
Challenges in conveying the magnitude of biodiversity loss and its effects
Human view that as an individual, you can't make a difference
No immediate gain from what's being suggested to do to help
Biodiversity patterns
Bigeography
the study of biodiversity patterns and why they arise:
Metapopulation
metacommunity
regional community
species range(s)
biota
Started by Alfred Russel Wallace
Biogeographical realms
Where species are isolated from other regions for millions of years
There are 11 realms:
Panamanian
Neotropical
Oceanian
Nearctic
-Madagascan
Australian
Afrotropical
Saharo-Arabian
Paleaarctic
Sino-Japanese
Oriental
Biomes
Mainly characterised by vegetation adapted to regional environments
Broadly determined by climate
Tundra
Barren/ treeless land
Lichens, mosses, sedges, dwarf shrubs
Cold, dry, permafrost, dark
Very seasonal
Taiga/ Boreal Forest
Boreal = Northern
Continuous belt of coniferous trees
Cold, short, wet summers
Poor acidic soils
Temperate broad-leaf deciduous forest
37-60 degrees latitude
Once dominated UK and Europe
Year-round rainfall
Cool winters
Strong seasonality
Tropical rainforest
Within 28 degrees of equator
High precipitation and temperature
Light is main plant growth limitation
subtropical belt = dominated by desert
Ecoregions (within biomes)
Large areas with characteristic natural communities
share many species, dynamics, and environmental conditions
Used as conservation units
Marine Systems
stronger influence of ocean currents and topography than climate
Marine ecosystems of the world
12 realms, 62 provinces, and 232 ecoregions
Distinct biotas
Determined by geology, physiology, vegetation, climate, soils, land use, wildlife, and hydrology
Global Patterns of biodiversity
Marine vs. terrestrial regions
Oceans have more phyla and 90% of classes are marine
85% of macroscopic species are terrestrial
why is this?
Produvtivity
Most marine areas are less productive than terrestrial areas
less energy coming in because it is stored and distributed differently in the oceans
Habitat complexity
Most ocean is the homogenous pelagic zones
varies little in temperature with depth
More terrestrial niches and geographical structure
Higher dispersal rates in the ocean
Due to buoyancy and currents
Everything gets mixed around
Many species move from sea to land but not vice versa (mostly)
Inland vs. mainland
Islands
Fewer species on small, isolated islands than on large islands close to the mainland
Populations more likely to go extinct (individuals die or leave) on smaller islands because populations are smaller
Species Area Relationships (SAR)
Smaller area harbours fewer species because extinction rates are higher
Extinction probability decreases with area because of larger population sizes (major factor in SAR)
Colonisation probability decreases with isolation from other land masses
Species richness depends on both factors (extinction probability and colonisation probability)
Could apply to habitat patches
Endemic Species distributions
Where taxon is found nowhere else
especially common on islands
Varies in scale
Patterns are of fundamental and applied interest
Generally, endemics increase with area and decrease with latitude
also a relationship with abiotic conditions
Latitudinal biodiversity gradient
Species diversity increases towards the equator
this general pattern is clear but the gradient is not consistent between continents
There is a bump around Mediterranean and central European area
Pattern differs among taxa and there are some exceptions
e.g. diversity of some salamander and frog families, some aquatic birds, and mammals peak in temperate regions
because of higher speciation and low extinction rates in the tropics
Cradle vs. museum
Speciation and extinction rates
palaeontology: more taxa originate in the tropics than elsewhere
Phylogenetic data: tropical clades speciate faster than other clades (origination)
mixed evidence for latitudinal differences in extinction rates
Evolutionary clades originate in the tropics and species colonise poleward areas ('cradle')
Why is speciation higher and extinction lower in the tropics?
Historical
the tropics are older and have been near the equator for a long time
less environmental perturbation due to lack of coriolis force
Geographical
The tropics occupy more area than other regions (now and historically)
More space for speciation, less likelihood of extinction
Climatic
Higher solar radiation in the tropics
increased primary productivity
more energy for consumers
Seasonal stability allows niche specialisation
low seasonality
tropic species have narrower physiological tolerances than temperate species
tropical species adapt so they can only live in their particular 'climatic niche'
1 more item...
Biotic interactions are more important in the tropics
Tropical niche conservatism
strengthens the historical, geographical and climatic factors
Shifting Baselines
Shifting habitats
UK
Building more houses is not the alarm in terms of conservation... more where we are building them that's the issue
Low meadow and pasture = flower-rich and hugely biodiverse (great for invertebrates, small mammals, amphibians. etc
turned into agriculturally 'improved' grassland (removing almost all biodiversity in the process)
Species responses to environmental change
habitat loss has a greater negative effect on habitat specialists
Urban renaturing
Climate change and range shifts
species have 4 options:
tolerate the change
move
Adapt (phenotypic plasticity and natural selection)
face extinction
response curves
Bioshifts
a geo-database of >30,000 range shifts from >12,000 animal and plant species
Geographic bias towards most developed regions of northern hemisphere
Bias towards most charismatic animals and plants
Asks how well range-shifts track temperature isotherms (lines on a map linking places of equal temperature)
Marine species are moving towards the poles 6x faster than terrestrial species
less obstacles in the sea, less fragmentation and a more homogenous environment
What limits range shifts?
endotherms are more adaptable due to temperature regulation and so shift faster
Spore-bearing plants shift faster than seed-bearing plants because spores can disperse further than seeds
Human activity impedes range-shift speed
Positive: marine - fishing may speed marine range-shifts
Negative: terrestrial - fragmentation blocks range shifts
Historical temperature range affects range-shift speed
Climatic drivers of range shifts
Climate becomes newly suitable in new range
long-assumed but little evidence
Improved climate suitability increases abundance in old range
Don't know of any studies asking this question
Climate change opens new routes
Limited research so unclear how often it happens
Biotic resistance to range-shift lowers
Evidence could come from biological invasion research
What kind of species are range shifting?
comparing the traits of species that are range-shifting = a macro-ecological approach
Habitat generalisation
more generalist = more able to shift
Reproductive strategyy
more fecund/ higher reproductive rate = more able to shift
Dispersal
higher dispersal ability = more able to shift
Persistence
longer lifespan = more able to shift
The most climate threatened speceis are often least able to range-shift
ecological specialists
slow reproductive rate
Opportunists
of redistribution on human societies
species range-shift idiosyncratically (fast, slow, expand, contract, different directions
novel communities form
Ecosystem function
E.g mangrove expansion at the expense of salt marshes
wellbeing - income and food security
Culture
Disease
Conservation and people
Complex interactions with climate and human wellbeing
Indigenous and local people and environmental change
European colonialism has left a legacy of social and climate injustice
Many of the natural resources or kinship networks that support indigenous rights continue to be negatively affected by environmental degradation
UNDRIP 2007 (United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
‘respect for Indigenous knowledge, cultures and traditional practices contributes to sustainable and equitable development and proper management of the environment’
Indigenous peoples and local communities have customary rightsof up to 65% of the gloabl land area
however, they have ownership rights to just 10%
this leaves the vast majority of their territories available to environmentally destructive development
what can be done?
forecast the potential impacts of upholding indigenous rights in practice
with attention to keystone species, food security, cultural vibrancy, and environmental sustainability
to support in-community decision making
Forecast and visually represent localised climate change impacts with collaborating communities
to support informed decision making about how to implement indigenous rights in practics
What makes a protected area successful?
major threats:
Poaching
Encroachment by agriculture, ranching, urban development
logging
non-timber forest products
only 12% of surveyed areas are currently implementing an action plan
Generally good things in protected areas:
Design (location, boundaries)
Legality
Boundary demarcation
Knowledge of biodiversity inside
Objectives
Generally bad things in protected areas:
Enforcement
Monitoring
Budget security
Relations with local communities
Profitable and equitable management of tourism
Biodiversity conservation correlates with monitoring and evaluation, resource management, staff numbers and legal status
Management effectiveness correlates with law enforcement, education and awareness, and budget
Equitable conservation is effective
empowered local communities are key to effective conservation
self regulate
restore habitat
protect wildlife from encroachment
adapt to change
Imposed conservation can trigger local resistance
especially protected areas where hunting/ visiting is permitted for revenue
Imposed conservation can ignore local/ traditional governance
Imposed conservation can be effective but often at a great social and financial cost
Bad situations can improve with collaboration towards equity
Conservation Planning
Prioritising species
which species do we conserve?:
Rarest?/ Endemic?
Most vulnerable/ threatened?
Most feasible/ cheapest?
Surrogate species?
Economic and/or cultural values?
Species prioritisation schemes
IUCN Red Listing (International Union for the Conservation of Nature)
Protocols for assessing species extinction risk that can be applied to any species
performed by IUCN staff, Red List Authorities/ collaborators, specialists
Reviewed by international experts
species should be re-assessed every 5-10 years
Key indicator for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
Used by the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) to monitor progress towards targets
Categorisation
Extinct (ex)
No reasonable doubt that the last individual has died after systematic exhaustive surveys
Extinct in the Wild (EW)
Only survives in cultivation, captivity or naturalised population(s) outside of past range
Critically Endangered (CR)
Massive declines in numbers over last 10 years/ 3 generations, or predicted in the future
Tiny, severely fragmented, and shrinking, or fluctuating extent of occurrence/ area of occupancy
<50 individuals
Endangered (EN)
Substantial declines in numbers over last 10 years/ 3 generations, or predicted in the future
Small and fragmented, shrinking or fluctuating extent of occurrence/ areas of occupancy
<250 individuals
Vulnerable (VU)
Important declines in numbers, over last 10 years/ 3 generations, or predicted in the future
Fairly small and fragmented, shrinking, or fluctuating extent of occurrence/ area of occupancy
<2500 individuals
Data Deficient (DD)
Inadequate information to make direct, or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/ or population status
Uses of the Red List
Monitoring threats and setting priorities
Monitoring conservation progress
Assessing decline
populating changes can be modelled as well as observed
Population viability analysis
for well-studied species only
Cumulative probability of extinction over time
3 more items...
Strengths of the Red List
Best available global biodiversity index
Objective, clear, comprehensive and flexible criteria
Documents entire regions and clades (not just charismatic or rare species)
Evidence-based and peer-reviewed
Can be used to prioritise species and sites
100's of millions of dollars invested yearly in Red List priority species
Focal point for species/ biodiversity action plans
Limitations of red listing
global generalisation
Not capturing the reality of regional and local populations that tend to have different trajectories
sub-population assessments can help with this
Conservation purgatory: listing species as DD
DD species may in fact be well studies but appropriate data on abundance and/ or distribution are lacking
There is a need to reassess DD species to stop species slipping towards extinction unnoticed
The connotations of down-listing
fewer people object to up-listing vs. down-listing
But celebrating success is important to reinforce the message that conservation works and to incentivise donors
does down-listing mean a species is no longer a conservation priority?
Reliable data and evidence are required to help plan evidence-based species conservation (e.g. population modelling)
Prioritising can aid the focal species, but also biodiversity more generally
Species/ Biodiversity Action Plans
Guiding Principles
Should gather relevant information together in a user friendly format that is accessible to non-specialist readers
Proposed actions should be SMART
BAP structure
Phase 1
Species Account
Taxonomy
Status
Qualifying BAP criteria
Ecology
Local distribution
Local status
Summary of existing legal instruments relevant to the species
Ranked list of existing and potential threats to species
List all existing conservation measures currently in place for the species
Species Action Plan
Overarching objectives
SMART actions
Review existing BAPs
needs to be clear, concise, and visually appealing
Phase 2
Database format
Actions stored in database tables and continuously updated
Project management tool
Key Performance indicators
Surrogate species
species that represent a much wider array of taxa can be used as a 'short cut' to tackle conservation issues
Species of plants and animals used to represent other species or aspects of the environment to attain a conservation objective
Umbrella species
Species which when preserved, indirectly protect many other plant and animal species
The use broad geographic areas, or have such broad ecological requirements that by conserving them, we conserve many other species too
Helps with not having to understand the requirements of all species
Flagship species
Raise awareness or financial support
Favoured by non-governmental organisations
Attract tourists
Species chosen to appeal to donor and membership groups may not be popular among local communities
Indicator species
serve as a biological "signal" to help scientists assess the health of an ecosystem.
Environmental Indicators: These species can signal pollution levels, climate change effects, or habitat quality..
Sensitive to Change: Indicator species often have narrow ecological tolerances, so changes in their populations can quickly reflect environmental shifts
Keystone species
Due to their size or activity, any change in population will have large effects on their ecosystem (e.g. sharks, wolves, seabirds)
If a keystone species is removed, the entire ecosystem may change drastically or even collapse.
Why prioritise?
Limited money and resources
how do you assign a value to something?
How to prioritise
Science priorities
Government priorities
Stakeholder priorities
Societal priorities
Prioritising areas
Protected areas
‘A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values’ IUCN 2008
Category 1
Strict Nature Reserve: Protected area managed mainly for science
Wilderness Area: Protected area managed mainly for wilderness protection
Category 2
National park: protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation
Category 3
Natural monument: Protected area managed mainly for conservation for specific natural features
Category 4
Habitat/ Species management area: Protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention
Category 5
Protected Landscape/ seascape
Protected area managed mainly for landscape/ sea scape conservation and recreation
Category 6
Managed resource protected area
Protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems
How do we assign priorities to areas
Species richness/ diversity
presence of endemic species
Ecosystem uniqueness/ importance
Pristineness
Threats to biodiversity
Global Prioritisation
Focal points for investment
Reactive conservation
areas of highest threat
Proactive conservation
areas of low threat, where biodiversity is unique
Biodiversity hotspots
high biodiversity and high endemism
Conservation International's strategy
Ecoregions
WWF's strategy
A global strategy to conserve biodiversity must aim to protect representative examples of all of the world's ecosystems, as well as those that contain high biodiversity and endemics
Challenges of global prioritisation
Most taxonomic groups are unevaluated (mostly vertebrates)
ideal would be to include at least one viable population of each species in a protected area
but it is impossible to know viability for this many species
Population viability analysis
Large data gaps - identified by gap analyses
Global prioritisation triage
Conservation decisions can (and should) be based on
costs (including opportunity costs incurred by not protecting the resource)
Benefits (to biodiversity and stakeholders)
Likelihood of success
National costs of managing protected areas
least funded countries are developing nations
40 least-funded countries contain 32% of all threatened animals
Difficulties of conservation investment in developing countries
countries with low conservation costs are politically unstable
Protected areas in apparently low-cost countries are more likely to fail
Increasing conservation funding alone is unlikely to work
Governments in countries with low conservation costs often have high corruption, poor bureaucracy and human rights
Projects are less likely to succeed and more likely to have a negative impact on people
Investors are risk averse and so won't invest when the future is uncertain
Habitat restoration and nature recovery
Policy context
Aichi (Japan) Biodiversity Targets (2011-2020)
Kumming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework
4 overarching goals to be met by 2050
Halt loss, restore nature
Use lands and seas sustainably
Share benefits and services
Mobilise necessary resources
UK Environment Act
Extinct ecosystem engineers
climate
hunting
Historic context
Pre-industrial land-use filtered species through an 'ecological bottleneck'
most biodiverse habitats are semi-natural, relying on human activity
Open habitats become much more abundant
Historic perspectives informing nature recovery
high -levels of biomass/ nutrient removal + transfer to cropland
resource exploitation piecemeal/ intermittent
Nested heterogeneity: diverse land-use/ management, structural complexity
Active interventions encouraged or excluded livestock
Example habitats currently considered as important are anthropogenic:
Heathland
Wetland
Woodland
Farmland/ field margin
Mimicking traditional land use
heathland
wetland/ reedbeds
woodlands
farmland/ field margins
rewilding vs. nature recovery
rewilding ('letting nature care for itself')
actually often involves active intervention (e.g. trophic rewilding)
Conservation genetics
Biodiversity can be addressed at a number of levels
Ecological
Organismal
Genetics
Genotypes and genetic variation
Genetic variation within a population occurs when there is more than one allele present in a population at a given locus
In this case, the population is often referred to as 'polymorphic' at that locus (e.g. head colout)
Genetic diversity
what determines levels of genetic diversity
Mutation (random changes in the DNA which may be beneficial, neutral, or harmful for the organism)
Gene flow (movement of genes from one population to another (e.g. through dispersal))
Recombination (introduces new gene combinations into a population , 'genetic shuffling' (e.g. meiosis/ sex))
How do we measure genetic diversity?
Heterozygosity (average proportion of heterozygous loci)
Allelic diversity (Average number of alleles per locus)
Molecular markers (Assess the proportion of polymorphic loci by analysing proteins/ fragments of DNA associated with a certain location wihtin the genome)
Why is genetic diversity important for species?
Genetic diversity enables populations to adapt to changing environments
Individuals within a population will possess variations of alleles that are suited for the environment
Loss of genetic diversity is related to inbreeding
inbreeding reduces reproductive fitness
therefore, greater heterozygosity is expected to increase population fitness
Processes that can lead to loss of genetic diversity
bottlenecks
A gene pool is narrowed to a frwction of its former diversity
Genetic drift
A random effect (i.e. not selection driven
An evolutionary mechanism that produces random (rather than selection-driven) changes in allele frequencies in a population over time
Tends to be stronger in small populations
Inbreeding depression
Reduced fitness in a given population as a result of inbreeding
results in increased homozygosity which causes a reduction in fitness due to high levels of deleterious alleles
Deleterious alleles are normally recessive so won’t propagate. But in closely related populations, there is an increased chance of both parents carrying allele (e.g. poor sperm quality/ susceptibility to disease)
Inbreeding coefficient
the probability that 2 alleles at a locus in an individual are identical by descent from a common ancestor (i.e. measures how closely related parents are)
Outbreeding depression
When progeny resulting from crosses between genetically distant individuals (outcrossing) exhibit fitness lower than either of their parents' fitness, or compared to progeny from crosses between individuals that are more closely related
Other potential consequences of outcrossing
breaking up of coadapted gene complexes
Introduction of new diseases to which local populations may lack resistance
Introgression/ introgressive hybridisation
fThe movement of a gene from one species into the gene pool of another by repeated backcrossing of a hybrid with one of its parent species
Often due to human-induced introductions and has resulted in the decline or the extinction of numerous native species
Conservation genetics can be used to identify introgression
Conservation genetics in action
reintroduced populations are characterised by:
Small effective population sizes
Often isolated - limited gene flow
Increased effect of inbreeding
Must consider the factors that influence the genetic structure of a reintroduced population:
Maximise genetic variation retained during population recovery
Be aware that mating systems and degree of sociality can influence fine-scale genetic structure
Why is genetic diversity important for conservation?
Molecular markers can determine the taxonomic status of a given species or subspecies
Innovative genetic tools in conservation
de-extinction / resurrection biology
methods:
Backbreeding
Cloning
Genome editing (e.g. CRISPR)
controversial topic
Does it undermine the value of extinction for conservation cause?
Risk to species, communities and ecosystems by 'proxy' of extinct species
Vanity project of powerful conservation tool?
considerations of animal welfare, hubris and the allocation of conservation resources
eDNA (Environmental DNA)
genetic material that can be extracted from bulk environmetnal samples (e.g soil, water, air)
Conservation applications:
Detection of cryptic or rare species
Early detection of invasive species (in natural environment or while in transit (e.g. ships ballast))
Authenticity of imported species (legal/ illegal wildlife trade)
Community health (bio-assessment)
Community diversity/ richness
Community responses to environmental change
Other conservation methods
Ex situ conservation
totally ex situ = cryo-bank, zoo, gardens
Intersitu = game park/ reserve, wild (relocated location)
Virtually in situ = wild original location
why use ex situ conservation?
Loss of natural habitat - risk of extinction
Build up numbers for reintroduction
Insurance (e.g. cryobanks
Research
Education and awareness
things to consider
are the cost and effort justifiable?
Is ex-situ conservation worthwhile without in situ conservation?
Could ex situ conservation remove the perceived need or moral argument to preserve ' natural populations'?
constraints
genetic, ethical, behavioural, environmental, economical
Conservation through sustainable use
