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Parenting - Coggle Diagram
Parenting
Modern theories of familial dynamics
Co-parenting
parents support each other in child-care, make decisions abt child together
child-care divison ie who will cook for child, who will put them to bed
important role in family system ie maternal metnal health - greater levels of coparenting where this is better + better parenting efficacy with greater coparenting
single parenting
assosciated with worse outcomes but not necessarily CAUSAL
since maternal stress and family status together affect child outcome, other moderating variables
working more hours - more stress, financial crises possible, less supported in parenting roles - so stress may be reflected in relationship with child
preadolescent children of single mothers - more bhvr problems, less soc. competence, poorer sch. performance than those of married mothers
mothers less satisfied with emotional support/reported higher stress - longitud. analysis found stability over time for m-child variables, greater vulnerability for children of single mothers
divorce
42% of marriages end in divrose, almost half involve children < 16
-ve outcomes:
lower school performance, emotional + bhvrl problems, mental health
difficulties in child achieving lovel, commitment to marriage/parenthood
meta analyses showed academic achievement, conduct, self-concept, parent-child relationships
more recent studies showed smaller effects - could be more support now vs more stigmatised in the past
boys especially from divorced families show more problematic bhvrs
parent-child relationships in newly REmarried families problematic - here esp. problems for girls
Wallerstein and Lewis (2004) - longitud. studies
early changes
loneliness and fear of abandonment
memories of loss and violence
further studies (Laumann-Billings and Emery 2000) - children of divorce tend to blame fathers more
WHY?
Gottesman et al 2006 (couple interactions, coded verbal and non verbal bhvrs and claime dup to 95% accuracy predicting which couples would end up divorced)
four horsemen of relationship apocalypse
criticism (complaining, blaming, attacking, "you always.."
defensiveness (counterattacks, avoid responsibility)
stonewalling (closing down, avoiding topic)
contempt (hostility, disgust, this is considered the worst)
STOP by: gentle start up expressing feelings, culture of appreciation building, taking responsibility, physiological self-soothing
same-sex marriage
no -ve outcomes documented, children same in most respects
studies find that kids of lesbians demonstrate MORe positive an pro-social characteristics, like other children have good peer relationships and socially skilled
no difference in peer victimisation/psychological functioning
adoption
Golombok et al (2014) - uk study of 2-parent adoptive families
gay fathers - less depression and parenting stress
more parental warmth, more child interaction, responsiveness, less disciplinary aggression for gay vs hetero families
more externalising problems amg children in hetero than gay/lesbian families
Parenting Styles
Baumrind (1973)'s dimensions of parenting
control
nurturance
clarity of communication
maturity demands
in combining these, yield 4 different parenting styles
Baumrind's parenting styles
Authoritative
high control and high warmth
ideal
not bad thing to have high control - depends on HOW parents using their control
set guidelines but are flexible
positive feedback instead of punishment, not harsh discipline
firm but non-punitive control - open communication btwn parent and child (links to language dimension)
children MOST competent - self-reliance, socially responsive, keen to achieve, cooperative
Authoritarian
low warmth, high control
don't rely on discussion, described as "harsh"
children tend to be more dependant - low levels of independance/social responsibility
public yelling, spanking, use of inappropriate discipline
Permissive
low control and high warmth
don't often discipline
like to meet children's needs - whether necessary or unncessary
child tend to be immature, lack impulse control, self reliant, lack social responsibility/independance
Neglectful/uninvolved
low warmth, low control
don't interact with child, shows up sometimes when parents have own problem
parents neither responsive or demanding, may be actively rejecting or neglecting care responsibilities
most harmful for child - results in low levels of cognitive AND social competence
important dimensions of parenting
nurturance - showing warmth, reponsive to needs
discipline - providing appropriate punishment
teaching
language - age appropriate for child to comprehend and frequency
materials - provided to support child's play ie toys, books - how chil playing with them - together with parent? ie reading with child develops that bond
monitoring - awareness of where child is, what they are doing, too much - prevents independance
managing - need to have routine (sleeping/eating), planning for future
BUT not necessarily uni-directional
child's temperament
physical and social neighbourhood
families' ethnic/cultural practices - in some cultures authorirative may be more of the ideal, others not so
Determinants of parenting
Belsky (1984) - parental functioning determined by 2 domains
parental characteristics
eg personality/ beliefs/ age
developmental history
mental health - studies show better maternal mental hlth assosciated with better quality parenting vs suffering from post partum depression
psychologically stable parent cld cope with different temperamental features of child - even if difficult, mothers with good mental health should cope
child characteristics
temperament - most commonly studies - mothers show greater disapproval to children with difficult temperament
other eg's : behaviour, health, age, gender (some cultures favour males > females), skills
contextual factors
social network, support, culture, neighbourhood, work shetting
household class - linked with poor quality of parent-child relationship
marital quality - strongly related to parenting attitudes
Belsky emphasised HIERARCHY where 1. maternal personal resources > contextual resources/support > child characteristics
vs other studies suggest child characteristics more important - depends on families' different dynamics
Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory
emphasis on contextual factors
child's development like nested structures - devop. result of relationships between ppl and environments - cannot just evaluate based on the immediate environment...
microsystem
= immediate environment
factors child most directly exposed to ie relationships, family as most influential an ddurable influence
most of child's behaviour learned here
both parents and children actively shape - ie children actively select and avoid specific environment + personal attributes influencing responses
consideration of bidirectional relationships foundational to child's grwth
mesosystem
= interconnections btwn microsystems
relationships between
eg interactions btwn family and teachers, relationship between child's peers and family
Exosystem
= institutions of society that indirectly affect child's develpment
eg parent's workplace
funding for education + neighbourhood - may influence kind of relationship have with family
impacts child's develop since influences structures in microsystem
macrosystem
= cultural context
values, beliefs, customs, laws of culture child grows up in - influences how parents, teachers and others raise child
influences societal values, legislation, financial resources etc
influences even every day interactions
behavioural genetics
quantitative genetic theory
= individual characteristics influenced by multiple genes + environmental influences (interactive model)
genes influence traits of family members so affects the relationships in families
nature can affect the nurture
Assosciation between familial relationships and outcomes
family systems theory
Bowen's - individuals within family are
interdependant
+ relationships (ie marital -- mother-child -- father-child) influence each other
family as whole unit
greater than its part - sub-systems including parent-child, parental, marital, and sibling system - family unit is sum of relationships of family members and behaviours
subsysems are interdependant - change in one sub-system affects entire family (ie divorce influences parent-child system)
whole family unit open to outside/environmental effects too
individual's
psychopathology
= result of disturbed within family relationships
eg marital problems -- parental depression
rsch on maternal depression - linked to unresponsiveness to child and disturbed mother-child relationship
spillover hypothesis
emotional transference
where relationship quality of one dyad (eg sibling/mother-child/marital) within family influences quality of other relationships
marital quality plays significant role in mother-child and sibling relationship quality too
+ve marital relationships predict more positive parent-child relationships after several years VS conflict in marital relationship assosciated with POORER parent-child
marital satisfaction (how much satisfied with partner and relationship as whole) - gradual decrease in transitioning to parenthood/having a child, dips as teenager, recovers as child leaves/older
siblings
-ve parent-child and marital relationships linked with -vity in sibling relationships
links to CHANGING, evolving dynamics in family (not just having another child but mothers - not being able to work etc)
sibling relationship = emotionally uninhibited, incredible familiarity,
sharing/competiting for parental attention
SLT - children learning from role models including their siblings, family members - especially for younger children where hostile/aggressive or LOVING members can be role models
children observing interaction between mothers and fathers - acquiring these interactional styles for own relationships ie link to IWM
partner relationships influence sibling relationship
further relationship btwn mothers and first born in SOME rsch tend to worsen ie less joint attention, playful interactions
child characteristics (gender, age and temperament) influential in sibling interactions ie girls more +ve in welcoming 2nd sibling
better marital quality >> predicts less sibling rivalry, may be protective factor, linked to social learning
parental differential treatment - one sibling favoured more by parent can worsen quality of sibling relationship
Bidirectional parent-child effects (lecture)
Parent-child coercive cycles
based on child and parent +ve/-ve reinforcing each other's bhvrs - repetitions of coercive cycles result in progressive worsening of aggresive bhvrs
eg parent's harsh discipline to child's irritably only reinforces child to be more irritable and demand more attention
cld be either parent or child who gives directive/demand first - once party counter-attacks escalates the cycle reinforcing the fit/arguing
Breaking by:
avoid escalation
remove stimulus
positive reinforcement NOT rewarding their tantrum bhvrs
modelling positive bhvrs - ie talking them aloud
bidirectionality -- mutual influence where parent and child each influence the other's behaviours - ie child's difficult temperament
measured through bhvrl observation, time series analyses/longitud. tudies, genetically-informed designs (don't forget gene environment correlations!)
long-term bidirectional assosciations (Chiang and Bai, 2024)
bidirectional effects between parenting stress and child internalising/externalising problems (from ages 5-9)
child's internalising problems at 5 predicted greater parenting stress at 9 which predicted child internalising problems at 15 (sim for parenting stress age 5 predicting greater externalising problems age 9 etc)
revealed child's anxiety -- stress of parents -- reinforcing chil's anxiety, and stress of parents -- aggression -- more stress