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Exam 4, relevant for graph models # # # #, leads to new allele frequency …

- - - - J-shaped curve
      - Unlimited resources
    - - S-shaped curve
      - Typical of a population
        
        self regulates
        
        Has a carrying capacity (K)
        
        reaching capacity
        
        overshoot will die off
        
        limited resources manage population
  - - - Grow exponentially
      - Disturbed areas
      - Weedy
      - Annuals
      - Little investment in defense
      - Many, small fruits
    - - Fluctuate around carrying capacity
      - Fairly stable habitats
      - Perennials
      - Invest in defenses
      - Resource-intensive fruits
    - - How long did individuals survive
      - Type I, typical of K-selected species
      - Type III, typical of r-selected species
      - Dependent on environment
      - Same species can display all 3
      - Survivorship curves are plotted logarithmically
      - Take survivorship (lx) and multiply by 1000
      - Take the log10 of this value
      - Plot against age to produce a figure
  - - - Stress
        
        Resource availability
        
        light
        
        water
        
        nutrients
        
        Growth inhibitors
        
        temp
        
        toxins
      - Disturbance
        
        Biotic
        
        Herbivory
        
        Pathogens
        
        Anthropogenic
        
        Abiotic
        
        Fire
        
        Wind
      - competition
        
        C- competitors
        
        S- stress tolerators
        
        R- ruderals
  - - - Ro
        
        Calculated by taking the sum of the offspring/individual column.
        
        If R0>1, the population size increases.
        
        If R0<1, the population size decreases, and
        
        if R0=1, then population size does not change.
        
        (Σ)(lx(fx)
      - G
        
        Calculated by taking the sum of the Age-weighted fecundity column and then dividing by the net reproductive rate
        
        Represents average time between two consecutive generations in the lineage of a cohort
        
        The average age between parent and offspring
        
        (Σ)(lxfxX)/Ro
      - r
        
        Calculated by taking the natural log of the net reproductive rate divided by the mean generation time.
        
        If r>0, the population size increases.
        
        If r<0, the population size decreases, and
        
        if r=1, then population size does not change.
        
        r=lnRo/G
  - - - Benefits both
      - Mutualism
      - Pollination
    - - Benefits one, neutral to the other
    - - Negative to one & neutral to other
    - - Both are negatively impacted
        Competition
    - - Herbivory
      - parasites
      - Predator-prey interactions
        
        prey & predators have positive and negative impacts on one another
        
        prey increase with lower predators
        
        predators increase with more prey
        
        prey & predator population are codependent and are roughly the same
        
        Lotka-Volterra models
        
        dN/dt = rN-aNP
        
        dN/dt=rate of change with time of the prey population
        
        r=intrinsic rate of increase for prey
        
        N=number of prey individuals
        
        a=predator’s per capita attack rate
        (prey eaten)
        
        P= number of predator individuals
        
        dP/dt = faNP-qP
        
        dP/dt= rate of change with time of predator population
        
        f=constant, indicating predator’s efficiency at converting the prey it has eaten into new predators
        
        q=predator’s per capita mortality rate
- - - - Orientation of bivalents is random
    - - Orientation of sister chromatids is random
    - - During Prophase I
      - Synaptonemal complex forms
      - Mixes the genes in homologous chromosomes
      - new combinations not present in parent chromosomes
      - at least one chiasma occurs between every pair
    - - New combination of alleles from each parent
      - Promotes heterozygosity
      - genetic diversity
      - alleles can be bunched together and eliminated
      - Escape host-parasite negative impacts
      - Cross pollination and self-pollination
  - - - unique genotypes (alleles)
      - Phenotypes made by these alleles and environment
      - Heterozygosity = 1 dominant & 1 recessive allele
      - Homozygosity = same alleles type (dominant or recessive)
    - - Alleles are segregated during meiosis
      - gamete contains only one allele for each gene
      - Offspring inherit 2 alleles (one from each parent)
      - inherit a homologous chromosome
      - During meiosis, 2 members of a gene pair separate from each other
    - - pairs not related separate (homologs)
      - pains not linked together separate
      - Polygenic inheritance
        
        Multiple genes for one character
        
        Phenotype is cumulative
        
        Continuous variation
        
        most traits
        
        Epistasis
        
        One gene interacts with another
        
        interfere or mask
        other traits
        
        Pleiotropy
        
        Single gene with multiple effects on the phenotype
        
        single gene which visibly influences several traits
    - - Phenotype of heterozygote is intermediate between those of parent homozygotes
      - Ex. Snapdragons
        red x white = pink
    - - Changes in the genetic makeup of an individual
      - Point mutation = Single nucleotide change
      - Chromosome mutation
        
        Deletion
        
        Segments of chromosome are lost
        
        Duplication
        
        Part of the chromosome has doubled
        
        Inversion
        
        Piece rotates 180
        
        Translocation
        
        Exchange of parts between 2 nonhomologous chromosomes
        
        Transposons
        
        Movable genetic element
        
        Jumping genes
      - No crossing over
        
        Fail to mix alleles across homologs
        
        Chromosome inherited same as parent
        
        Only 2 gamete types possible rather than 4
      - Linkage
        
        4 haploid genotypes
        
        Not produced in equal numbers
        
        Recombinants less abundant
        
        Parentals more abundant
      - Polyploidy
        
        Having more than two copies (2n) of a chromosome
        
        Autopolyploid
        (Failed meiosis & Self fertilization
        )
        
        Allopolyploid
        
        Meiotic error
        
        Mismatch during mating
        
        Second mating creates matched pairs
- - - - the number of a specific allele divided by the total allele count for a trait
      - to calculate frequency. You must multiply by 2 if has 2 of the same alleles as the video
    - - the # of a certain genotype divided by the total genotypes for that trait
    - - p^2+2pq+q^2=1
        
        p= dominant allele
        
        q= recessive allele
        
        usually need to find the percent of the recessive allele first
      - p + q=1
        
        after solving for 1 of the alleles use this equation to solve for the other one.
        
        plug back into the other equation after this step.
      - you can use a pun net square also to find genotypic ratio
        
        find the value of the dominant & recessive allele frequency
        
        cross multiply through pun net square system
      - divide specific phenotype by total phenotypes and you will get a percent
        
        plug into equations and solve
        
        can be percent or number when divided either works
      - Microevolution
        
        Changes in a gene pool from generation to generation
        
        Mutation
        
        Change in one of the nucleic acids
        
        Source of all new alleles
        
        some effect the phenotype
        
        must be inherited by gametes
        
        natural selection
        
        One allele selectively advantageous
        
        individuals with the 2 genotypes are able to reproduce more
        
        population grows & size
        
        Artificial selection
        
        Selection by humans
        
        farming protocols
        
        crop breeding
        
        Increased frequency of desired trait
        
        Elimination of undesired traits
        
        Frequency distributions
        
        Genetic equilibrium
        
        Directional Selection
        
        Stabilizing selection
        
        Disruptive selection
        
        Death does not mean natural selection has occurred
        
        Survival due to phenotypes that are heritable
        
        Differential survival
        
        genetic drift
        
        Random loss of alleles
        
        stronger effects in smaller populations
        
        can increase again but not to original diversity
        
        bigger populations more effect by migration/catastrophe
        
        migration
        
        Movement of alleles into and out of a population
        
        immigration = into
        
        emigration = out of
        
        impeded by environment or life history
        
        repercussions
        
        GMO
        
        climate change
        
        speciation
        
        nonrandom mating
        
        “choose” their mates
        
        pollination syndromes like smell or color
        
        some give more offspring than others
        
        male competition
        
        barriers on stigma for pollen
        
        Polymorphism
        
        Dimorphic
        
        2 phenotypes
        
        dominant & recessive
        
        Polymorph = many phenotypes
        
        Can be due to a single nucleotide polymorphism