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Collective Action - Y2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Issues with intergroup contact -- has a positive effect on attitudes, but does not always decrease discrimination
      - Prejudice habit-breaking interventions - Prejudice is seen as a habit (Devine, 1989; Devine and Monteith, 1993; Devine et al, 2012)
        
        Breaking prejudice is like breaking a habit -
        -> Awareness of implicit bias
        -> Concerns about the effects of this bias
        -> Strategies to decrease the bias
        
        Devine et al, 2012 - 12-week longitudinal study on implicit race bias
        
        91 non-black participants
        
        Random assignment to control and intervention group
        
        Findings -
        -> Intervention group participants had lower implicit association test scores than control group participants
        -> Control group concern about discrimination consistent across study
        -> Intervention group increased in concern about discrimination and personal awareness of bias after they received the intervention
    - - Types of contact - direct, computer-mediated, imagined and extended
        
        Direct contact - Herek and Capitanio, 1996 -
        
        National AIDS telephone survey (N = 538)
        -> Attitudes toward gay men and lesbians
        -> Contact with gay people
        -> Heterosexuals reporting interpersonal contact (31.3%) reported more positive attitudes towards gay people than those without contact
        -> These findings have been replicated
        -> Contact - positive attitudes
        -> Number of relationships being higher increased positive attitudes
        -> Closer relationships also led to better attitudes
        
        Pros -
        
        Personal experience
        
        Emotions and beliefs experienced as an active participant
        
        Potential link to other personal contacts
        
        Can be communicated to others
        
        Cons -
        
        It has to be positive to induce prejudice reactions
        
        It is not always possible
        
        Computer mediated contact - Schumann et al, 2017 -
        
        Participants engaged in synchronous text-chat with students from an outgroup (N = 64)
        
        Overall, computer mediated contact reduced negative outgroup sentiments
        
        Pros -
        
        CMC can overcome practical obstacles that exist with direct contact, especially for distantly related groups
        
        CMC provides multiple forms of communication, allowing people to choose channels that lessen their intergroup anxiety during interaction (Cao and Lin, 2017)
        
        Cons -
        
        Out group member anonymity decreases perceived social presence, which in turn may be associated with less positive evaluations of the outgroup and higher prejudice (Schumann et al, 2017)
        
        Extended contact - In group and out group contact - seeing or hearing of an ingroup members cross-group friendships / experiences
        
        Vicarious experiences of contact (not direct)
        
        Actual experiences of contact are not necessary
        
        Meta-analysis (Zhou et al, 2019)
        -> 248 effect sizes from 115 studies showed small-to-medium effect sizes
        -> Independent of the effect of direct contact
        
        Pros -
        
        Extended contact can have an effect on many individuals
        
        Social learning -> my friends friend is my friend and change of the norm
        
        Extended contact could allow for future contact
        
        Works equally well regardless of individual demographics, type of out-group attitude and location
        
        Cons -
        
        Weaker effect
        
        Works better when extended contact is perceived v actual (Zhou et al, 2019)
        
        Works better for religious intergroup differences
        
        It is subject to individual differences
        
        Imagined contact - Mental simulation of a social interaction with a member or members of an outgroup category (Crisp and Turner, 2009)
        
        Actual experience of contact is not necessary
        
        Imagining a positive interaction that is successful and comfortable
        
        Imagining both the interaction partner and the interaction itself
        
        Turner, Crips and Lambert, 2007 - imagined contact leads too
        -> Reduced intergroup anxiety
        -> Improved attitudes
        -> Improved outgroup variability
        
        Pros -
        
        No need for an actual encounter
        
        Possible in conflict situation and where difficulties for contact occur
        
        Cons -
        
        Need to be engaged in the simulation
        
        Not a long lasting effect
        
        Less powerful than direct contact and extended contact as shown in a meta-analysis of 70 studies - Miles and Crisp, 2013
        
        Not well-replicated - McDonald et al, 2014. Birtel and Crips, 2014
- - - - Social identity model of collective action - Van Zomeren et al, 2008)
        
        Group identification -> individual psychological ties to the relevant group
        
        Perceived of felt group-injustice -> individuals perceptions of unfairness or experience of anger about the group's disadvantage
        
        Group efficacy beliefs -> individuals beliefs that the group is able to achieve group goals through unified effort
        
        The above are unique and positive predictors of individual's willingness to engage in collective action
        
        Group identification - increases collective action (Simon et al, 1998 and Van Zomeren et al, 2008):
        
        Role of identification (Van Zomeren et al, 2008)
        -> Black South Africans' racial identification and collective action intentions (Cakal et al, 2011)
        -> Feminist identification and feminist collective action (Nelson et al, 2008)
        
        Stuermer and Simon, 2004 -
        -> More than 400 members of the largest formal organisation in the German gay movement (SVD)
        -> T1 - identification with gay men as a collective identity and identification with the social movement, as well as past participation in collective action
        -> T2 = after 12 months - subsequent participation in collective action, and identification with a formal social movement organisation predicted participation in social action
        
        Injustice -> more collective action (Van Zomeren et al, 2008) -
        
        Bernburg, 2015 - this study examined the link between economic crisis and collective action in an affluent democratic society (Iceland)
        
        Using a survey (n =610), the role of perceived economic loss and political attitudes in protest behaviour were investigated
        
        Financial loss predicted protest support and participation
        
        But only if individuals believed their losses to be greater than others
        
        Having a left wing political attitude and belief in extensive corruption, predicted protest participation and support
        
        Likelihood of protests positively related to perceived injustice
        
        Efficacy -> more collective action (Van Zomeren et al, 2008) -
        
        A subjective sense of injustice is not enough to collective action to occur
        
        Efficacy has become one of the key instrumental explanations of collective action - the idea being that people engage in collective action if they believe this will make it more likely that relevant goals are achieved
        
        Sabberwhal et al, 2021 -
        -> Pre-registered study - nationally representative sample - N = 1,103 - mean age is 47.9, 51% male and 49% female
        -> Hypothesis - familiarity with Greta Thunberg is associated with collective action intentions through collective efficacy beliefs - mediates the association between familiarity with Greta and collective action intentions
        -> Age and political identity interaction - age (moderated) led to collective efficacy beliefs being increased; political beliefs (moderated) were involved in impacting collective action intentions
        -> Method - online survey - familiarity with Greta, collective efficacy beliefs, collective action intentions, political ideology
        -> Findings - familiarity with Greta Thunberg is positively associated with collective action intentions through collective efficacy beliefs
        -> The above associations are present across all age groups, but are stronger in those who identify as more liberal
      - Morality -
        
        Moral motivations for collective action - the motivation to protect one's moral beliefs by fighting for what one stands for, or will certainly not stand for (Van Zomeran et al, 2018)
        
        Moral conviction - individual's feelings that their stance on a particular issue reflects their core beliefs about right and wrong (Van Zomeran et al, 2018)
        
        Judge et al, 2022 -
        -> Dietary behaviours - pre-registered study
        -> Study 1 - N = 351 self-identified vegans from the UK and Australia - ages 18-68, 71.2% vegan
        -> Study 2 - N = 340 self-identified vegans from the UK and US - age 18-60, 71.2% female
        -> Research question - what motivates vegans to engage in collective action on behalf of this social group
      - Model of reasons why people engage in collective action -
        
        Morality -> increases injustice, efficacy and identification with disadvantaged group -> experiencing these increases collective action
        
        Van Zomeren et al, 2011
        
        All of these factors can also be linked to emotional components
        
        Emotions - perform a key role in human functioning (Lazarus, 1991; Scherer et al, 2001; Van Zomeren et al, 2012)
        
        Cognitive appraisal of the environment leads to experience of emotions, which in turn inclines individuals towards actions
        
        Anger is the emotional experience of injustice about collective disadvantage (Van Zomeren et al, 2011)
        
        Stanley et al, 2011 - are eco-anger, eco-depression and eco-anxiety associated with collective action?
        -> Nationally representative sample - N = 2,453, Mage - 44.08, 44.2% male, 55.5% female, 0.3% did not disclose
        -> Hypotheses - Eco-anger is positively associated with collective action on climate change such as protest and petition; Eco-anxiety and depression is unrelated to collective action
        -> Methods - online survey on eco-emotions and pro-climate behaviours including collective action and individual's behaviours
        -> Findings -
        
        eco-anger - positively associated with collective action and individual behaviours
        
        Eco-depression - positively associated with collective action not individual behaviours
        
        Eco-anxiety - negatively associated with collective action - non-significant association with individual behaviours