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Memory - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Capacity - 7+-2
        
        Miller - found we use chunking - digit span
      - Coding - acoustic
      - Duration - 18-30s
        
        Peterson and Peterson
        
        Participants were tested over eight trials. On each trial, a participant was given a trigram to remember e.g. – YCG and the asked to count backwards from a 3 digit number until they were told to stop. This was to prevent rehearsal, so the information did not move to the LTM and stayed in the STM.
        
        Participants, on average were 90% correct after 3 seconds, 20% correct after 9 seconds and only 2% correct after 18 seconds
        
        Suggests duration is 18-30s
  - - - Participants were asked to recall the words in the correct order (serial recall) straight away (STM recall) or 20 minutes after hearing them (LTM recall).
        
        Findings: When STM was tested – recalling the words straight away, participants remembered fewer of the acoustically similar words. Equally, when LTM was tested – recalling after 20 mins, participants remembered fewer semantically similar words
        
        This means that as the words were acoustically similar, they were confused and could not be remembered straight away, so the STM must code information acoustically (based on how the information sounds)
  - - - Coding - semantic
      - Duration - unlimited
        
        Bahrick
        
        Photo test - pps were shown photos of old classmates they then had to recall the names after 15yrs and 48ys
        
        RESULTS- 15yrs - 90% of the participants were able to correctly match the names and face
        
        48rys - 60%
        
        Free recall - pps had to name as many classmates as they could after 15yrs and 48yrs
        
        15yrs - 70%
        
        48yrs - 30%
      - Capacity - unlimited
- - - - Two stores - phonological store - inner ear, stores acoustic items
        
        articulatory control process - inner voice, stores words its seen or heard
  - - - Coding: It processes information in all sensory forms.
      - Capacity: However, the capacity is limited. It can only cope effectively with one strand of information at one time
  - - - Baddeley added this component later, as he realised that the model had no general storage facility.Coding: Both auditory and visual information.
        
        Coding: Both auditory and visual information.
        Capacity: Capacity is limited- about four chunks of information.
  - - - Visual Cache: This stores information about form, shapes and colour.
      - Inner Scribe: This handles spatial relationships and transfers information from the Visual Cache to the Central Executive.
      - Capacity is limited- about three or four objects/chunks of information.
- - - - Leading questions is a question in which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer and thus leads the individual to answer in that way.
        
        Loftus and Palmer
        
        used 45 student participants who were shown seven short video clips of cars colliding. They were split into five groups, with nine participants in each one.
        
        After watching each video clip, all of the participants were asked: ‘About how fast were the cars going when they __ each other’.
        
        Each group was given a different verb to fill in the blank. These verbs were: smashed, collided, bumped, hit, or contacted.
        
        It was found that how the question was phrased influenced the participants’ speed estimates
    - - This occurs when there is more than one witness to an event, by which witnesses discuss what they have seen and this influences the accuracy of each person’s recall of the event.
      - Gabbert et al
        
        investigated the effect of post-event discussion on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. Her sample consisted of 60 students from the University of Aberdeen and 60 older adults recruited from a local community.
        
        PROCEDURE
        
        FINDINGS -
        
        Gabbert et al. found that 71% of the witnesses in the co-witness group (who had discussed the event with a partner) went on to mistakenly recall information they had acquired from the discussion and not actually seen.
        
        60% said that the girl was guilty, despite the fact they had not seen her commit a crime.
        
        These results highlight the issue of post-event discussion and the powerful effect this can have on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
        
        All participants independently watched a video of a girl stealing money from a wallet. Participants were then either tested individually (control group) or in pairs (co-witness group).
        
        The participants in the co-witness group were told that they had watched the same video as their partner , however they had in fact seen another video of the same event but from a different angle, therefore they would have different perspectives of the same crime - only one person had actually witnessed the girl stealing.
        
        Participants in the co-witness group discussed the crime together and all of the participants then completed a questionnaire, testing their memory of the event.
  - - - During violent crimes, increased arousal (anxiety) may cause a witness to focus more on the central details of the attack (such as the presence of a weapon) rather than peripheral details – leading to poor and inaccurate recall of details in violent crimes. Loftus et al (1987) called this phenomenon ‘The Weapon Focus Effect’.
    - - Yuille and Cutshall
        
        Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada. The shop owner shot a thief dead. There were 21 witnesses. 13 agreed to take part in the study. Interviews were held 4-5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews at the time of the shooting.
        
        Using a 7-point scale (on a self-report questionnaire) the witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they felt at the time of the incident and if they had had any emotional problems since then, (i.e. sleeplessness, PTSD etc..)
        
        Witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change 5 months on from the shooting.
        
        Participants who had reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (88%) compared to the less stressed group (75%)
        
        Therefore, this shows that when the presence of stress can be sometimes be a useful factor in improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, as participants who had a high levels of anxiety were more alert and thus paid more attention to the details of the event and as a result, had the most accurate recall.
    - - Johnson and Scott
        
        Johnson and Scott (1976) led participants to believe that they were going to be taking part in a lab experiment. While seated in a waiting room, participants heard an argument in an adjoining room:
        
        In the ‘low anxiety’ condition, more of a discussion was heard followed by a man leaving the room with a pen with grease on his hands.
        
        In the ‘high anxiety’ condition, a heated discussion was heard, accompanied by the sound of breaking of glass followed by a man leaving the room holding a pen knife covered in blood.
        
        Participants were then asked to identify the man from 50 photos.
        
        Those in condition 1 – Having experienced low anxiety, were accurate 49% of the time.
        
        Those in condition 2 – Having experienced high anxiety, were accurate 33% of the time.
        
        Therefore, this shows that when the participants in condition 2 saw the knife, the presence of the weapon caused them to be more anxious and as a result they focused on the details of the weapon, rather than identifying the perpetrator, hence the lower recall accuracy.
  - - - Report everything – witnesses are encouraged to report everything that they remember regardless of whether or not they think it’s relevant.
      - Context reinstatement – witnesses are encouraged to recall details of the scene, including the weather that day, their mood & thoughts at the time, who was there, what they were wearing.
      - Change in recall order – witnesses are asked to recall the event from the end, or from the middle.
      - Change in perspective – witnesses are asked to recall what other people may have seen.
    - - Fisher et al (1987) developed some additional elements of the Cognitive Interview to focus on the social dynamics of the situation.
        eye contact, reduce anxiety, asking open questions
- - - - Old information interferes with new e.g old postcode
    - - New information interferes with old e.g teacher can't remember old students names
    - - They studied retroactive interference by changing the amount of similarity between two sets of materials. Participants had to learn a list of words.
        
        GROUPS
        
        Group 6 – No new list – these participants just rested.
        
        Group 5 – three-digit numbers.
        
        Group 4 – Nonsense Syllables.
        
        Group 3 – Words unrelated to the original ones.
        
        Group 2 – Antonyms – words with the opposite meanings of the originals.
        
        Group 1 – Synonyms – words with the same meanings of the originals.
        
        FINDINGS
        
        If List B was a list of synonyms of List A, recall was poor (12%).
        
        If List B was nonsense syllables this had less effect (recall was 26%)
        
        If List B was numbers, then recall was best (37%)
        
        This shows that interference is strongest when….
        
        The words/material being learnt is similar in meaning.
  - - - Forgetting occurs due to a lack of insufficient cues
        
        Cue dependent
        
        State dependent
        
        INTERNAL
        
        Carter and Cassady
        
        Gave antihistamines to pps, they have a mild sedative effect and will cause drowsiness.
        
        learn on drug - recall on drug 2. learn on drug - recall of drug, 3. learn off drug - recall on drug, 4. learn off drug - recall off drug
        
        1 more item...
        
        Context dependent
        
        EXTERNAL
        
        GODDEN AND BADDELEY
        
        investigated contextual cues on recall
        
        Their sample consisted of 18 participants (13 males and 5 female) from a university diving club, who were divided into four conditions:
        
        5 more items...
- - - - Report everything – witnesses are encouraged to report everything that they remember regardless of whether or not they think it’s relevant.
      - Context reinstatement – witnesses are encouraged to recall details of the scene, including the weather that day, their mood & thoughts at the time, who was there, what they were wearing.
      - Change in recall order – witnesses are asked to recall the event from the end, or from the middle.
      - Change in perspective – witnesses are asked to recall what other people may have seen.