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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, James Marcia (1965) best known for his work on…

- - - - EXAMPLE: the aging process, where an individual experiences both gains (like increased wisdom) and losses (like decreased physical stamina) as they get older
  - - - EXAMPLE: a child learning to read, where their ability to decode words is influenced by factors like their family's socioeconomic status (access to books), their school environment (quality of reading instruction), & their cultural background (language exposure at home)
  - - - EXAMPLE: studying a child's cognitive development; where researchers would need to draw on insights from psychology to understand their thought processes, neuroscience to examine brain development, & sociology to consider the impact of their social environment on learning abilities, effectively integrating multiple disciplines to fully grasp the child's developmental trajectory
  - - - EXAMPLES
        
        Puberty: the age of puberty is plastic & can be influenced by internal factors like body fat composition & external factors like stress
        
        Adolescent Development: adolescents may experience changes in their behavior or attitude when they oved to a new environment or are exposed to new experiences or ideas
- - - - Moratorium:
        a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments
      - Foreclosure:
        the status for those who have made a commitment to an identity without having explored the options
      - Achievement:
        Marcia's theory of identity achievement states there are two distinct parts contributing to the achievement of adolescent identity: a time of choosing a crisis, & a commitment
      - Identity Diffusion:
        people who have not decided who they are or what they want, & they have also not started exploring options
- - - - educational pursuits, such as attending college, are often critical during this stage, impacting career readiness & identity formation
    - - emerging adults may engage in non-traditional relationships, exploring intimacy & partnership without immediate commitments
- - - - Decision Making & Problem-Solving Skills
        
        Complex Problem-Solving: emerging adults often encounter more complex problems that require critical thinking and analytical skills.
        For instance, in a professional context, they may need to analyze data to make strategic decisions or navigate interpersonal conflicts within team dynamics.
        This process enhances their ability to approach problems from multiple angles and consider various potential outcomes.
    - - Exploration of Personal Values & Beliefs:
        emerging adults often reassess their values, beliefs, and goals during this period.
        This is evident in their educational experiences, as they might critically evaluate their academic paths, questioning whether their chosen majors align with their personal interests and long-term aspirations.
        This reflective practice is crucial for personal growth and helps them make informed life choices.
      - Identity Formation: cognitive development in emerging adulthood is closely tied to identity exploration. Individuals experiment with different roles and experiences, reflecting on their self-concept.
        For instance, someone might try out various internships or volunteer positions to discover what they truly enjoy, gradually shaping their identity and future career direction through these experiences.
  - - - Peak Physical Condition: emerging adults typically experience their max physical strength & endurance in their late teens to early 20s. This includes optimal muscle mass, cardiovascular efficiency, & overall physical fitness.
        Regular exercise during this stage can lead to lifelong health benefits, such as lower risk of chronic diseases.
        Young adults often engage in sports or physical activities that enhance these attributes, & they may push their bodies to new limits, discovering personal strengths & capacities.
      - Changes in Health Behaviors: emerging adulthood is a period of experimentation with lifestyle choices, including diet & exercise.
        Individuals often transition from the structured environment of adolescence, where meals might have been regulated by parents, to greater autonomy in food choices. This may result in both positive changes, such as adopting healthier eating habits & regular exercise, or negative ones, such as increased fast food consumption or neglect of physical activity.
        The choices made during this stage can significantly affect long-term trajectories.
    - - Exploration of Sexual Identity & Relationships: Emerging adults often explore various aspects of their sexual identity, preferences, and romantic relationships.
        This exploration includes forming intimate partnerships, understanding sexual orientation, and communicating needs and boundaries.
        The experiences during this stage can shape future relationship patterns and are often influenced by social norms, peer influences, and cultural background.
      - Family Planning & Parenting Decisions: as emerging adults contemplate their future, they may start to address important decisions related to family planning, including whether to have children, when to start a family, and how to approach parenting.
        These decisions are intertwined with their understanding of finances, career stability, and relationship readiness.
        The experiences and decisions in this domain can lead to either embracing parenthood early or opting to delay it for personal, educational, or career advancement.
    - - Substance Use & Experimentation: emerging adulthood is often characterized by increased risk-taking behaviors, including experimentation with alcohol, drugs, and other substances.
        Many young adults may engage in binge drinking or drug use to fit in with peers, cope with stress, or seek new experiences. This experimentation can lead to negative consequences, such as addiction, legal issues, or health problems.
      - Driving & Safety-Related Risks: young adults might engage in risky driving behaviors, including speeding, driving under the influence, or distracted driving (e.g., texting while driving).
        This stage is marked by a sense of invincibility, which can lead to dangerous situations. Education on safe driving and awareness of consequences is crucial in mitigating these risks.
  - - - Exploration of Romantic Relationships & Friendships:
        emerging adults explore intimate relationships more deeply than in previous developmental stages.
        For instance, many begin to form romantic partnerships that may lead to long-term commitments.
        They learn to communicate openly, negotiate boundaries, and develop emotional closeness.
        This exploration often includes navigating the complexities of love, trust, and vulnerability, which are crucial for healthy adult relationships.
      - Erikson's Stage of Intimacy vs Isolation:
        in this stage, individuals are faced with the challenge of forming intimate, loving relationships while balancing their desire for independence. Successful resolution leads to strong relationships & a sense of connection, whereas failure may result in loneliness & emotional isolation. This stage is critical for developing meaningful partnerships & deep friendships
    - - Importance of Peer Relationships:
        during this stage, friendships often shift in depth and significance. Emerging adults might maintain old friendships from adolescence while also forming new connections through college or workplace environments.
        These friendships can provide essential support systems, offering emotional stability and a sense of belonging while also fostering personal growth as individuals share experiences and challenges.
      - Family Dynamics & Their Evolution:
        gaining independence is a critical aspect of this phase. Emerging adults often transition from relying on their families to making their own decisions, such as managing finances, living arrangements, and personal schedules.
        This newfound autonomy can bring about challenges, as they learn to balance their needs with the expectations of others, like family and friends, while solidifying their own sense of responsibility.
      - Emotional Regulation
        
        Development of Coping Strategies for Stress:
        Emerging adulthood is filled with transitions, such as graduating from college, starting a new job, or moving to a new city. These transitions can trigger feelings of anxiety and uncertainty, as individuals must adapt to new roles and environments.
        Developing effective coping mechanisms through these experiences – whether it's seeking support from peers, engaging in self-care, or finding mentorship – is crucial for their emotional and social development.
        
        Mental Health Considerations
        ie; anxiety, depression
    - - Levinson's model suggests that emerging adults experience a transitional phase called the "novice phase", where they explore different life options & form a preliminary structure for their adult lives.
        During this time, they begin to establish personal & professional goals & navigate relationships, creating a foundation for their future identity.
        Levinson's framework highlights the importance of life transitions & the ongoing nature of personal development
  - - - Identity Exploration: This journey uncovers your true self by helping you understand your values and goals. Embrace self-reflection and diverse experiences to foster self-acceptance and growth.
      - Relationship Formation: Building strong relationships is essential for a fulfilling life. Effective communication and empathy cultivate bonds that offer support and open up new opportunities, significantly influencing your happiness and success.
      - Career Development: Actively shape your career path through education and networking. Understanding your strengths and exploring various professions enables you to set achievable goals. Embrace lifelong learning and adaptability to thrive in today's dynamic job market.
    - - In Levinson's Seasons of Life theory, young adulthood (ages 17-40) includes:
      - Early Adult Transition (17-22 years): A period of exploration and preparation for adult life, where individuals make choices about careers and relationships.
      - Entering the Adult World (22-28 years): Focus shifts to establishing careers, building intimate relationships, and starting families, laying the groundwork for future development.
  - - - Career Satisfaction
      - Raising Children
      - Community Involvement
  - - - Reflection on life
      - Coping with Loss
      - Maintaining Health
- - - - average growth of 2-3 inches per year
      - growth patterns influence social interactions
    - - a healthy diet that includes a variety of nutrients can help prevent emotional & behavioral problems in children
  - - - Characteristics: children begin to use language & think symbolically, but their thinking is intuitive & egocentric
        
        Egocentrism: difficulty in seeing things from perspectives other than their own
        
        EXAMPLE: a child thinking that their stuffed animal can see everything they do
        
        Animism: belief that inanimate objects have feelings & intentions
      - Language Development
        
        milestones: vocabulary growth, grammer use
      - growth in cognitive abilities (Piaget's stages) from early to middle childhood; influences social interactions & moral understanding as children move from imaginative play to more structured activities
  - - - Description: take the initiative on some activities - may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries are overstepped
        
        EXAMPLE: child-led play & parental involvement
    - - family & peer interactions play a crucial role in early childhood socialization, providing the foundation for a child's psychosocial development by teaching them essential social skills like communication, cooperation, empathy, & self-regulation through their initial reactions with family members & later expanding to include peer relationships, which further refine these skills & contribute to a child's sense of belonging & self-esteem
- - - - Changes: height, weight, & muscle development
      - EXAMPLE: increased physical activity & sports participation
  - - - Characteristics: children start to think logically about concrete events, grasping the concept of conservation & classification
        
        Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance
        
        EXAMPLE: recognizing that if you pour water from a short class into a tall, skinny glass, the amount of water remains the same
        
        Classification: ability to group objects based on common characteristics
        
        EXAMPLE: shorting a collection of buttons by color & size
    - - Schooling & literacy development during middle childhood are crucial for cognitive development because they provide children with the tools & experiences necessary to refine their thinking skills, enhance their ability to learn & remember info, develop critical thinking, & gain a deeper understanding of the world around them
  - - - Description: develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not
        
        EXAMPLE: participation in team sports or group projects
        
        development of self-esteem affects cognitive development
      - shifts in social dynamics from middle childhood to adolescence; increased importance of peer groups, identity development linked with cognitive growth, & emotional changes indicated by Erikson's Stages
        
        Piaget's Stages provide a framework for understanding cognitive shifts that play into Erikson's psychosocial stages, illustrating how cognitive maturity influences identity formation during adolescence
    - - Kohlberg's Pre-Conventional Level
        stage 1: obedience & punishment orientation: morality is based on avoiding punishment, decisions are made to circumvent negative consequences
        stage 2: individualism & exchange: recognizes that others have interests too, right actions are those that serve one's own interests or involved a fair exchange
    - - Zone of Proximal Development
        describes the difference between what a learner can do independently & what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable person, such as a teacher or peer.
      - Vygotsky's ideas underscore the importance of cultural influences on a child's development, including the values & practices that families & communities have. These social & cultural interactions impact emotional, social, & cognitive development, demonstrating that a child's environment & relationships play a crucial role in shaping their learning & overall growth during this vital stage of life.
    - - through modeling, children learn norms & values, & their understanding of social dynamics evolves.
      - Bandura's theory connects to various developmental areas, including cognitive, social, & emotional growth.
        For example: during this stage, children are increasingly influenced by peers & role models which can effect their social skills, moral development, & self-esteem
- - - - Characteristics: Development of abstract reasoning, problem-solving, & hypothetical thinking
        
        Abstract Thought: ability to think about concepts without physical referents
        
        EXAMPLE: discussing justice & freedom without needing to see these concepts physically
        
        Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning: formulating hypotheses & testing them
        
        EXAMPLE: a teen developing a hypothesis on why a plant grows taller & testing it through experiments
  - - - EXAMPLE: experimentation with substances or activities
    - - brain maturation affects abstract thinking
  - - - Consequences of Role Confusion:
        
        difficulties with commitment - a stable personal identity allows individuals to have better relationships with others
        
        worse mental health & well-being - research has linked a strong sense of identity to better emotional and psychological well-being in adolescents
        
        weak sense of self - role confusion has been found to lead to a weak sense of self
        
        lack of confidence - a lack of self-identity can make it difficult for people to have confidence in themselves and their abilities
      - Benefits of Identity:
        
        commitment - resolving this crisis at this stage of development involves committing to a particular identity. This might involve committing to a career path, deciding what social groups to associate with, & even developing a sense of personal style
        
        self-confidence - those who are able to develop a strong sense of identity are better able to have self-confidence, or a sense of trust in their abilities, qualities, & judgments
        
        sense of independence - those who receive proper encouragement & reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self & a feeling of independence & control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs & desires will remain insecure & confused about themselves & the future
        
        fidelity - those who are successful develop fidelity, a psychological virtue characterized by the ability to relate to others and form genuine relationships, this ability plays an important role in the upcoming stage known as intimacy versus isolation
        
        better mental health & relationships - research has shown that teens who have a strong sense of identity have better mental health. They are also more likely to have good relationships with their peers, and have better emotional and psychological well-being.
      - identity struggles linked to cognitive abilities
      - ongoing identity exploration from adolescent to emerging adulthood
    - - Importance of friendships & social networks: increased reliance on peer feedback for self-esteem
    - - Shifts in parental roles & autonomy
- - - - physical health impacts emotional well-being in infancy
  - - - during infancy, positive reinforcement can encourage attachment behaviors when caregivers respond to a child's needs.
      - in adolescence, the application of operant conditioning can be observed in shaping social behaviors, where peer reinforcement may play a crucial role in influencing decisions & lifestyles
      - behaviorism according to B.F. Skinner, is a psychological approach that focuses on the study of observable behaviors & the ways they are influenced by the environment through reinforcement & punishment
  - - - EXAMPLE OF WHAT BUILDS TRUST BETWEEN INFANT & CAREGIVER:
        
        an infant's caregivers create a safe environment in which the infant feels protected
        
        a mother or father is attentive to their baby's needs (baby is fed regularly, given affection consistently, etc)
        
        a parent reassures their infant when the infant is scared & comforts them when they are in distress
      - EXAMPLES OF WHAT BUILDS MISTRUST BETWEEN INFANT & CAREGIVER:
        
        when an infant cries out, their caregiver isn't available to meet their needs
        
        a mother or father is inconsistent in feeding their infant
        3 a caregiver doesn't comfort the infant when they are scared or uncomfortable
        
        the caregiver allows the infant's environment to become unsafe, & as a result, the infant feels insecure & unsafe
    - - Attachment theory describes the deep emotional bond that forms between a child & primary caregiver, Bowlby believed these early attachments play a critical role in personal development, impacting emotional, social, and cognitive growth
        
        Ainsworth Attachment Styles:
        Ainsworth's work paved the way for understanding the importance of early relationships in shaping psychological outcomes, making her contributions foundational in developmental psychology
        
        Influencing Factors: caregiver responsiveness, emotional availability, & the overall environment play crucial roles in the attachment styles developed by children
        
        Insecure-Resistant (Ambivalent) Attachment:
        infants are highly distressed during separation & exhibit ambivalent behavior upon reunion, seeking comfort but resisting it at the same time
        
        Secure Attachment:
        infants show distress when separated but are easily comforted upon reunion. They view their caregiver as a secure base for exploration
        
        Insecure-Avoidant Attachment:
        These children show little distress upon separation & may avoid the caregiver upon return. This reflects a sense of self-reliance or emotional distance
        
        Long-Term Effects: research indicates that secure attachment fosters healthy relationships in adulthood, while insecure attachment may lead to challenged in relationship building & emotional regulation
        
        Critiques: some researchers have pointed out the cultural bias inherent in attachment theory and the Strange Situation . Different cultures express attachment in varied ways, which Ainsworth's model might not fully encapsulate.
        
        infancy attachment influences social skills & cognitive growth in early childhood
      - Nature of Attachment: Bowlby posited that attachment behaviors (crying, clinging, following) are evolutionary adaptations that enhance child survival by ensuring proximity to caregivers who provide protection, nourishment, and care
      - Secure Base: the concept of a "secure base" is fundamental to Bowlby's theory. When caregivers are responsive & available, children feel more secure to explore their environment, try new things, & foster independence
      - attachment styles formed in infancy influencing later relationships in emerging adulthood