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Unit 3, Elements, Unit 2, Mitosis, Eukaryotic Gene expression, Golgi…

- - - - RNA Primase - adds RNA primers
      - Topoisomerase - Detangles DNA
      - DNA Poly 3 extends DNA from RNA primers in the 5' to 3'
      - Ligase - connects strands of DNA to make it continuos
      - DNA Poly 1 - Replaces RNA with DNA
      - ORI sequence - where lagging turns to leading strand
      - Helicase - splits DNA
      - SSB - Holds individual strands apart
- - - - cell walls
- - - - Extracellular matrix to allow unique communication between cells
      - Junctions
        
        gap junctions, allows the passage of molecules between cells freely
        
        tight junctions allow nothing to pass through between cells
        
        desmosomes help facilitate the moderate transfer of molecules between cells
- - - - GPCR: Binds GDP, GTP, and activates Adenylyl Cyclase
    - - This is what bonds to the receptors to start a response
    - - PKA: Starts cascade through receiving message from cAMP
        
        Protein Kinase: Receives ATP and adds Phosphate to another protein (repeats process and amplifies)
  - - - Reception - signal comes from o outside molecule which diffuse into cell of binds to a receptor
      - Transduction - signal is amplified throughout cell through phosphorylation
      - Response - signal goes to nucleus and causes coding or goes to target structure to cause a response
- - - - Lysosomes, flagella, centrosomes, microvili
    - - plasmodesmata,cell wall,central vacuole, chloroplasts
  - - - Smooth ER-
        lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification
      - Rough ER-
        "studded" with ribosomes and synthesizes proteins
    - - Microtubules-
        made of alpha and beta tubulin proteins to maintain cell shape, form cell movement structures, and
      - Microfilaments-
        made of actin to maintain cell shape, enable cellular movement, and support microvilli
    - - Golgi Apparatus-organelle active in synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products
      - Peroxisomes-contains specialized metabolic functions and produces H2O2 which is then converted to H2O
      - Plasma Membrane-membrane that encloses the cell
      - Ribosome small brown dots that make proteins-
      - Mitochondria-where cellular respiration occurs and lots of ATP is produced
    - - Chromatin-consists of DNA and proteins
        
        connection between the nucleus and DNA replication is that DNA that is replicated is condensed into nucleosomes to eventually form chromatin that reside packed within the nucleus, and the nuclear pores in the nucleus help Mature mRNA exit the nucleus in order to be synthesized by free floating or binded ribosomes.
      - Nuclear Envelope-
        double membrane that surrounds the nucleus
      - Nucleolus-
        non-membranous and helps in ribosome production
- - - - Energy investment phase of glycolysis-
        utilizes 2 ATP, a hexokinase to phosphorylate glucose into glucose 6 phosphate, then a phosphofructokinase in step 3 to phosphorylate fructose 6 phosphate into fructose 1-6 bisphosphate
      - Energy payoff phase of glycolysis-
        4 ATP is made, and 2 NADH is formed, as well the final product of 2 pyruvate molecules
      - Pyruvate oxidation
        pyruvate becomes oxidized in order to create molecules of Acetyl CoA
        
        Citric Acid cycle (Krebs cycle)-
        uses Acetyl CoA in order to create 1 ATP, 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 electron carriers.
        
        Step 1: Acetyl CoA is combined with Oxaloacetate due to the help of the enzyme acetyl synthase to form citrate
        Step 3: Citrate is dehydrated due to the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase to form Isocitrate
        
        Oxidative phosphorylation-
        utilization of the ETC inside the intermembrane of the mitochondria, to push protons against their proton gradient in order to cause protons to then make them go down their gradient, causing chemiosmosis, in ATP synthase to make 30 molecules of ATP,
- - - - Prophase I: duplicated homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange segments
        
        Metaphase I: Chromosomes line up by homologous pairs
        
        Anaphase I: the two homologous chromosomes of each pair separate
        
        Telophase I and Cytokineses: two haploid cells form, each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids
    - - Prophase II: duplicated homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange segments
        
        Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up by homologous pairs
        
        Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell.
        
        Telophase II and Cytokinesis: four haploid daughter cells result, containing unduplicated chromosomes.
- - - - telophase-cells begin to form nuclear envelope around new sister chromatids
        
        cytokinesis- microfilament ring cleaves the cells making two daughter cells
- - - - Pre-mRNA still contains introns, which are spliced out by splicsosomes then the exons of the mRNA are bonded together
        
        A poly A polymerase enzyme adds a poly A tail to the mRNA and a phosphate cap is added to the 5-prime end of the mRNA, finally converting it into mature mRNA that leaves the nucleus to be translated.
        
        Translation
        
        A Ribosomal subunit attaches to the mRNA and begins to translate the mRNA
        
        Aminoacyl Synthase helps bond amino acids on the 3' prime end of tRNA, in order to prepare for the elongation phase of gene translation
        
        The ribosome reads for the methyl codon on the mRNA to start elongating the chain, starting first at the P site of the ribosome
        
        the next tRNA attaches at the A site, where peptidyl transferease attaches the growing amino chain to the tRNA in the A site to then move to the P site where the now empty tRNA once in the P site is moved to the E site where it is ejected from the ribosome.
        
        2 more items...
    - - The polymerase moves downstream, unwinding the DNA and elongating the RNA transcript 5' to 3'. DNA reforms a double helix.
    - - RNA transcript is released, and the polymerase detaches from the DNA.
    - - RNA binds to the promoter and the DNA unwinds. From there, the polymerase initiates the RNA synthesis on the start point of the template strand.