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Gender and Sexuality - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Restricted priesthood to men
      - 1 Timothy 2:12
      - Example of Jesus's all-male apostles
      - Despite these restrictions, women played vital roles in the church, particularly as deaconesses or in religious communities.
    - - Process and key figures
        
        The ordination of women as priests was approved by the General Synod of the Church of England in November 1992
        
        Key figures included individuals from groups like the Movement for the Ordination of Women, campaigning since the 1970s.
      - Arguments for
        
        Theological: Gender should not be a barrier to serving God; equality.
        
        Practical: Declining numbers in the church
        
        Societal: The church needed to reflect the changing attitudes in society to remain relevant.
      - Arguments against
        
        Theological: Some believed that the priest, representing Christ in certain sacramental roles, should be male as Jesus was.
        
        Ecumenical Concerns: Worries about the impact of this decision on relations with other Christian churches.
    - - Continued debate on bishops: The issue of consecrating women as bishops became the next major discussion. This was eventually approved in 2014.
      - Provision for opponents: 'Flying bishops' or 'provincial episcopal visitors' were appointed to provide episcopal oversight to parishes that opposed women's ordination.
      - Continued evolution: Some parishes and individuals remain opposed, and the Church continues to grapple with these differences.
    - - Early church tradition
        
        Jesus chose only male apostles, and this has been understood to set a precedent.
      - Vatican II (1962-1965)
        
        Women could serve in roles such as lectors and later, as acolytes or altar servers in some places.
      - Pope Paul VI
        
        Traditional stance
      - Pope John Paul II
        
        1988 apostolic letter Mulieris Dignitatem
        
        Emphasised the unique roles and gifts of women without endorsing their ordination.
        
        1994 'the Church has no authority authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful'
      - Pope Benedict XVI
        
        Decree in 2008 that stated attempting to ordain a woman would result in automatic excommunication for both the women and the one attempting the ordination.
      - Pope Francis
        
        But, in 2016 he did establish a commission to study the historical role of female deacons in the early Christian church.
        
        Upheld Church's traditional teaching
  - - - Post-Christian feminist theology
        
        Irredeemable patriarchy
        
        The entire edifice, from its foundational beliefs to its historical expressions, is gender-biased.
        
        Male imagery of God
        
        Male priesthood
        
        Male-centric narrative of salvation history
        
        Christianity vs. other religions
        
        Christianity is more resilient to feminist reform compared to other major religions
        
        Doctrinal critiques
        
        Incarnation
        
        Atonement
        
        Male-centric views of the divine and of salvation
        
        Only a male saviour can redeem humanity
        
        Places men in a privileged spiritual position
        
        Historical misogyny
        
        Christianity's subordination of women
        
        Early church fathers
        
        Deep-seated misogyny
        
        Moving beyond Christianity
        
        Doesn't mean a rejection of spirituality or the sacred
        
        Other spiritual paths
        
        Egalitarian perspective
        
        Rather than reform a tradition she sees an inherently flawed, she suggests women and feminists would be better served by exploring beyond its framework.
      - Hampson's critiques of Christian anthropology
        
        The creation narratives
        
        Adam and Eve
        
        Casts women in an inherently subordinate role
        
        Eve's creation form Adam's rib is seen as derivative
        
        Woman is blamed for the Fall
        
        Women's secondary status
        
        Women's inherent inferiority to men
        
        Women's susceptibility to deception
        
        Doctrine of original sin
        
        Augustine: sin is transmitted through the sexual act
        
        Women become more closely associated with the body, flesh, and sin, while men are often associated with the spirit, rationality, and the divine.
        
        Incarnation and atonement
        
        Masculinity at the centre of redemption
        
        Devalues the feminine
        
        Pauline writings
        
        Argue for women's subordination
        
        Male authority and female submission
        
        1 Timothy 2:8-15
        
        Historical continuation
      - Moving beyond Christianity
        
        Inherent patriarchy in Christianity
        
        While some feminists aim to reclaim or reinterpret Christianity, Hampson believes tat such attempts, though well-intentioned, might not sufficiently address the deep-seated issues.
        
        The value in Christianity
        
        She posits that for feminists, the costs of staying might outweigh the benefits
        
        Exploration of alternative spiritualities
        
        She suggests that feminists should explore other spiritual traditions or create new frameworks that are inherently egalitarian.
        
        Such pathways would be free from the historical and doctrinal baggage that encumbers Christianity.
        
        Critique of Christocentrism
        
        Critique of Christocentrism
        
        The focus on Jesus Christ as the exclusive and universal saviour
        
        Interfaith engagement and pluralism
        
        Suggests feminist can find rich, liberating, and egalitarian spiritual insights in various world religions, indigenous traditions, or even in new spiritual movements.
        
        Feminist can engage in a broader, more inclusive spiritual dialogue.
    - - Redeeming the tradition
        
        Christianity's dual legacy
        
        On one hand, there's the patriarchal structure, reflected in teachings, scriptures, and institutions
        
        On the other hand, there are deeply liberate and egalitarian elements in Christianity
        
        Reinterpretation of scripture
        
        Hermeneutic of suspicion - identify and challenge patriarchal bias of the text
        
        Hermeneutic of proclamation - highlights liberate messages
        
        Christology
        
        'Androgynous Christ' - Christ embodies both masculine and feminine qualities
        
        Argues the female nature is more Christ-like than the male
        
        Church as prophetic community
        
        Constantly renews itself in the light of justice and equality
        
        Interconnection of oppressions
        
        Intersectional
        
        Recognises gender oppression is interconnected with other forms of oppression such as racism, classism, and environmental degradation.
        
        Dialogical approach
        
        By engaging other faith traditions, she believes Christian feminism can be enriched.
      - 'Hermeneutic of suspicion' and 'hermeneutic of proclamation'
        
        Hermeneutic of suspicion
        
        A critical approach to texts, recognising they mights not be saying all there is to say or might be shaped by underlying motives/biases.
        
        This means reading the Bible with an eye to its patriarchal contexts and biases.
        
        Scepticism
        
        Not about dismissing the Bible, but about understanding how patriarchy has shaped its narratives, laws, and teachings.
        
        Critique and deconstruction
        
        Hermeneutic of proclamation
        
        Affirmation and reconstruction
        
        Celebrating the liberative, egalitarian, and justice-oriented strands within Christian scriptures.
      - The Androgynous Christ
        
        Transcending dualism
        
        In Christ, supposed opposites are reconciled.
        
        Christ as the 'New Adam'
        
        Archetype of a renewed humanity
        
        Encapsulated the fullness of humanity
        
        Christ transcends gender distinctions
        
        Image Dei and redemption
        
        Both male and female are made in the image of God
        
        Sin introduced gender heriarchies
        
        Christ's redemptive work aims to restore humanity to its original, undivided image.
        
        Challenging exclusively male imagery
        
        Argues that if Christ represents all of humanity, there's no reason to resist female Christological symbols
        
        Such symbols make Jesus more inclusive and uplift the value of womanhood
        
        Towards an inclusive Christology
        
        Reconciling the very nature of Christ and, consequently, of God
        
        A deeper realisation of Christianity's core affirmations
      - Female nature and Christ
        
        Self-giving love and sacrifice
        
        Agape
        
        Kenosis
        
        The nurturing and self-giving aspects traditionally associated with female roots reflect Christ
        
        Challenging patriarchy
        
        Deconstruction of established gender heirarchies
        
        Highlighting the inherent worth and dignity of both sexes
        
        Subverting dominance
        
        By aligning Christ's characteristics with femininity, she critiques the very foundations of male dominance
      - Critiquing the historical church
        
        Oppression and marginalisation
        
        Ruether does not hesitate to critique the Church's history in its treatment of women
        
        Female empowerment within Christianity
        
        Prominent female figures, eg. Phoebe, Lydia, and Priscilla
        
        Redeeming the tradition
        
        Recognising the religion's shortcomings, celebrating its strengths, and working towards a more inclusive, just, and egalitarian faith community.
      - Reinterpretation of key doctrines
        
        Creation
        
        Both male and female were made in the image of God
        
        Christology
        
        Androgynous understanding of Christ
        
        Christ represents all of humanity, including women.
        
        Ecclesiology
        
        Both men and women participate in the full sacramental life of the Church
        
        Criticises the Church's hierarchal strutures
        
        Eschatology
        
        Envisions a world transformed by justice
        
        Anthropology
        
        Stresses the inherent goodness and equality of all humans, both male and female
        
        Soteriology
        
        Her understanding of salvation is not just about personal redemption, but also involves societal transformation.
  - - - Historical views
        
        Early Christianity
        
        Pauline advocacy
        
        1 Corinthians 7: Celibacy allows one to be more fully devoted to the Lord without the distractions and responsibilities of married life
        
        Ante-Nicene fathers
        
        Many church fathers, before the Council of Nicaea, saw celibacy as a means to preserve spiritual purity and to dedicate oneself more fully to the service of God
        
        Ascetic movements
        
        With the growth in monasticism, celibacy became more associated with renouncing worldly pleasures to focus on spiritual growth
        
        Mediaeval Christianity
        
        Monastic orders
        
        Vows of chastity
        
        Church legistaltion
        
        Clerical celibacy became mandatory through a series of church laws
        
        The Second lateran Council 1139 solidified these requirements on priests
        
        Augustine
        
        Saw celibacy as superior because it symbolised heaven where sexual relations would no longer exist.
      - Modern views
        
        Roman Catholicism
        
        Theological defence: Defends the celibacy of its priests as a sign of their total dedication to God and the Church. It is also seen as a way of emulating Christ.
        
        Practical reasons: A priest can dedicate himself more fully to his pastoral duties and can be more ready to serve the community.
        
        Criticisms: Mandatory celibacy has been criticised. Some argue it can lead to isolation, loneliness, and psychological issues. Also, the issue of the clergy sexual abuse crisis it brought into consideration.
        
        Calls for change: Voices advocate for optional celibacy within the RCC for diocesan priests.
        
        Protestantism
        
        Celibacy as a choice: Do not require celibacy and many Protestant leaders are married.
        
        Celibacy is still however respected for those who choose.
    - - Historical views
        
        Biblical origins
        
        Marriage as a divinely instituted convent.
        
        Genesis 2:24 'a man shall leave his father and his mother and hold fast to his wife, and they shall become one flesh'
        
        Union and commitment
        
        Church fathers
        
        Augustine: marriage for procreation
        
        Sacramental
        
        Council of Trent
        
        Declared marriage to be one of the seven sacraments
      - Modern views
        
        Purpose of marriage
        
        Procreation
        
        Increasing acknowledgement of other factors (eg. love)
        
        Roles within marriage
        
        A complementation view
        
        Husbands as leaders and wives as helpers
        
        Others advocate for more a more egalitarian view
        
        Divorce and remarriage
        
        Many Christian denominations disapprove of divorce except in cases of adultery or abandonment
        
        Broader understanding and pastoral care approach toward those who have experienced divorce
        
        Conditions vary
        
        Same-sex marriage
        
        Increasing social acceptance
        
        Some denominations have come to affirm and bless same-sex marriages
        
        While others maintain a traditional stance that marriage is exclusively between a man and a woman
        
        Marriage preparation and support
      - Denominations that affirm and bless same-sex marriage
        
        The Episcopal Church (USA)
        
        Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA)
        
        Presbyterian Church (USA)
        
        United Church of Christ
        
        The Metropolitan Community Church
        
        Quakers
      - Denominations that maintain a traditional stance
        
        Roman Catholic Church
        
        Southern Baptist Convention
        
        The Orthodox Church
        
        The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon)
        
        Jehovah's Witnesses
        
        Assemblies of God
    - - Historical views
        
        Biblical passages
        
        Old testament
        
        Leviticus 18:22 'do not have sexual relations with a man as one does with a woman; that is detestible'
        
        New testement
        
        Romans 1:26-27 'for this reason God gave them up to dishonourable passions. Their women exchanged relations for unnatural, and the men likewise gave up natural relations with women and were consumed with passion for one another'.
        
        1 Corinthians 6:9-10
        
        1 Timothy 1:10
        
        Early Christian thought
        
        Augustine and Chrysostom
        
        Commented negatively on homosexual acts
        
        Contrary to the natural order
        
        Mediaeval to early modern period
        
        Largely condemned
        
        Severe penalties
        
        Sinfulness
        
        Imprisonment to execution
      - Modern views
        
        Affirming denominations
        
        Episcopal Church (USA)
        
        The United Church of Christ
        
        The ELCA
        
        Overarching themes of love and justice in the Bible
        
        Traditional stances
        
        Portrayal of marriage being between a man and a woman
        
        Roman Catholic CHurch
        
        Orthodox Churches
        
        Traditional interpretation of Biblical passages
        
        Re-evaluation of biblical passages
        
        Som argue that the traditionally cited passages refer to specific ancient practices (eg. temple prostitution) rather than consensual same-sex relationships
        
        The broader Christian comunity
        
        Within many denominations, there's a spectrum of belief
        
        Many Christian LGBTQ+ advocacy groups work to promote change and acceptance
    - - Historical views
        
        Eunuchs in the Bible
        
        Castrated men or men born without male reproductive organs
        
        Occupied ambiguous gender roles in ancient societies
        
        Acts 8:26-40
        
        Matthew 19:12
        
        Origen
        
        Castrated himself
        
        Creation narratives
        
        Making of humans 'male and female' (Genesis 1:27)
        
        Binary distinction
      - Modern views
        
        Affirming views
        
        Theological arguments
        
        Inherent worth of every individual
        
        Image Dei
        
        Gender is a spectrum
        
        Binary understandings of male/female are culturally and historically contingent
        
        Denominational stances
        
        United Church of Christ
        
        Episcopal Church (USA)
        
        Taken steps to affirm transgender individuals, including allowing them to serve as clergy.
        
        Traditionalist views
        
        Theological arguments
        
        Believe that biological sex is divinely ordained
        
        Genesis 1:27
        
        View transitioning as a rejection of God's creation
        
        Denominational stances
        
        Catholic Church
        
        Pastoral approaches
        
        Regardless of beliefs, churches and leaders emphasise the need for pastoral care, love, and understanding
        
        Call for a compassionate outreach
        
        Lived experience
        
        Intersections of faith and gender identity
        
        Highlight struggles of seeking acceptance within faith communities
        
        Also highlight profound ways in which their faith has supported their journeys.
  - - - Significance
        
        Reinterpreting scriptures
        
        Challenge traditional interpretations which have been used to subordinate women
        
        Seek to uncover or emphasise egalitarian and liberative elements within scriptures
        
        Eg. Explore the roles of women in the Bible
        
        Challenging patriarchal structures
        
        Critiques the male-dominated power structures within religious institutions
        
        Redefining the divine
        
        More inclusive or even feminine images of the divine are expored
        
        Broaden our understanding of the divine
        
        Ethics and social justice
        
        Engages with topics such as gender roles, sexuality, reproductive rights, economic justice, and more.
        
        Affirming the inherent dignity and equality of all individuals
        
        Dialogue and other liberation theologies
        
        Intersect
        
        Eg. Black theology or queer theology
        
        Recognises oppression and identity are multi-faced
        
        Global perspectives
        
        Not monolithic
        
        Voices from around the world
        
        Voices from marginalised communities
    - - Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza
        
        Background
        
        Biblical interpretation
        
        Efforts to retrieve forgotten history of women in early Christianity
        
        Key contributons
        
        In Memory of Her
        
        Argues women played vital roles as disciples, apostles, and leaders in early Christianity
        
        Critiques the male-centric lens through which most of Christian history has been interpreted
        
        Rhetorical Criticism
        
        Argues biblical texts can be analysed as persuasive arguments shaped by specific historical contexts
        
        Kyriarchy
        
        Intersecting social systems of dominion and subordiantaion
        
        Kyriarchy
        
        Beyond patriarchy
        
        Encapsulates a broader range of oppressions
        
        Describes a social system where domination can be based on gender, race, sexual orientation, ability, and more
        
        Interconnected oppressions
        
        Different forms of oppression are interconnected and cannot be fully understood in isolation from one another
        
        Global perspective
        
        Ensures feminist analysis isn't solely grounded in Western contexts
        
        Theological implications
        
        Implications for how we understand sin, salvation, and structures of ecclesiastical power
      - Mary Daly
        
        Background
        
        Known for her critical stance against traditional Christianity
        
        Key contributons
        
        Beyond God the Father
        
        Argues the traditional Christian language and doctrine about God perpetuates the subjugation of women
        
        Post-Christian feminism
        
        Irredeemably patriarchal
        
        Daly moved beyond Christianity
      - Letty M Russell
        
        Background
        
        Emphasised the importance of partnership and inclusivity
        
        Key contributions
        
        Church in the Round
        
        Envisions a church as a round table where we all have equal voice and agency
        
        Partnership model
        
        Emphasises partnership rather than dominance
        
        Emphasises mutual respect and collaboration in both church and society
      - Mercy Amba Oduyoye
        
        Background
        
        African women's theology
        
        African perspective
        
        Key contributions
        
        African women's theology
        
        Emphasises the importance of culture, tradition, and the unique challenges face by African women
        
        Intergrates African spirituality with Christian beliefs
        
        Intercultural dialogue
        
        Advocates for the inclusion of diverse cultural perspectives in Christian theology
    - - Creation narratives in Genesis
        
        Imago Dei
        
        Intrinsic equality
      - The Fall and Eve's 'curse'
        
        Allegory for human free will and challenges or moral autonomy
        
        Challenge the idea that pain in childbirth and subordination to men should be normative and prescriptive
      - Jesus' interactions with women
        
        Radical nature of Jesus' interactions with women
        
        Jesus' inclusion of women as disciples
        
        Jesus' challenge to societal norms that marginalised women
      - Pauline passages
        
        Verses need to be understood in their historical and cultural context
        
        Galatians 3:28
      - Songs, wisdom, and prophetic literature
        
        Rich tradition of female voices in the Bible
        
        Offer examples of powerful female leaders and voices
      - Reconceptualizing God
        
        God transcends gender
- - - - Definition: The investigation of the Bible as a text. It involves analysing the origins, structures, and meaning of the text using various scholarly methods, distinct from purely devotional or theological readings.
      - Branches: textual; source; form; redaction criticism; etc.
    - - Enlightenment 17th and 18th centuries promoted rational and empirical approaches to knowledge, emphasising science, scepticism, and reason.
      - Growing interest in the contexts of texts like the Bible
    - - Textual criticism
        
        Aims to determine the original text of the scriptures
      - Source criticism
        
        Scholars proposed the books of the Bible were not the work of one single author, and rather complied from various sources
        
        4 main sources: Deuteronomy; Priestly; Eloist; Yahwist
      - Form criticism
        
        Concerned with the oral traditions behind the biblical texts
      - Redaction criticism
        
        Investigates how and why editors might have combined and arranged sources the way they did.
        
        Tries to discern the theological motivations behind these editorial decisions.
    - - Religious controversies
        
        Challenge traditional views about the authorship, origin, and formation of the biblical texts
      - Diverse interpretations
        
        Leads to more pluralistic understandings of scripture
        
        Differing conclusions about the meaning, sources, and history of a text
      - Broader access and study
        
        Bible becomes an area of study for also historians, linguists, and literary scholars
        
        Opens up rich, multidimensional explorations of the text
    - - Historical contextualisation
        
        Certain views on gender and sexuality were context-specific rather than timeless dictates
        
        Paul's admonitions about women's roles in certain communities could be seen as addressing specific issues of those congregations rather than being a universal mandate for all times
      - Revisiting authorship and intent
        
        Certain Pauline epistles could be found to be written by disciples of Paul rather than Paul himself
        
        Could suggest different contextual reasons
        
        Understanding the intent of the author and the audience
        
        May not be applicable universally
      - Literary analysis
        
        The Song of Solomon could be interpreted as a counter-narrative to more ascetic or procreative understandings of sexuality
        
        Recognising allegory, metaphor, and symbolism
      - Scholars
        
        John Boswell
        
        Argued that neither the Bible nor the Christian tradition was consistently hostile to hommosexuality
        
        Sodom and Gomorrah: 'sin' as a failure of hospitality or as pride rather than homosexuality
        
        Pauline passages: criticises pagan practices that involved temple prostitution rather than homosexuality (eg. Romans 1)
        
        Robin Scroggs
        
        The practices Paul criticises are not equivalent to modern understandings of consensual same-sex relationships, but rather practices like pederasty or temple prostitution.
        
        Walter Brueggemann
        
        Background: Has written extensively on the implications of the literature of the Hebrew Bible for ethics an justice.
        
        Prophetic imagination: Critiques the oppressive systems of the day; draws parallels between ancient prophetic critiques and modern social justice movements.
        
        Ethical implications: Bible as a documents that invites ongoing dialogue, engagement, and response.
        
        Emphasis on justice and liberation: Liberation theology, emphasises God's concern for the marginalised, the oppressed, and the downtrodden.
        
        Critique of empire: Criticises systems of power and domination.
      - The Song of Solomon
        
        Challenging patriarchal readings
        
        Identify how patriarchal cultural biases may have influenced certain interpretations.
        
        Sexuality and the nature of 'sin'
        
        These passages might have been addressing issues like inhospitality or temple prostitution rather than consensual same-sex relationships.
        
        Diverse voices
        
        Non-canonical and apocryphal texts
        
        Alternative views on gender and sexuality
        
        The Gospel of Mary
        
        Ethical criticism
        
        Justice, equality, and human dignity
  - - - Education: Elementary Education Act 1870 made education compulsory for both boys and girls.
      - Property rights: Married Women's Property Acct 1870 allowed women to keep earnings/property acquired after marriage.
      - Suffrage movement: The National Universal Women's Suffrage Societies formed in 1897
    - - Voting rights: Representation of the People Act 1928 gave all women over 21 the right to vote.
      - Employment: Sex Disqualification Act 1919 made it illegal to reject women from jobs on the basis of their gender.
      - Reproductive rights: Abortion Act 1967
      - Equality in work: Equal Pay Act 1970
      - Domestic violence: Domestic Violence and matrimonial Proceedings Act 1976
    - - Equality acts: Equality Act 2010 provided legal protections against discrimination based on gender, etc.
      - Parental rights: Shared parental leave, introduced 2015, allows parents more flexibility in sharing child rearing responsibilities.
      - Forced marriage: Forced Marriage Act 2007 and Anti-Social Behaviour, Crime, and Policing Act 2014.
  - - - 19th Century
        
        Industrial revolution: men increasingly worked away from home in factories, solidifying the idea of the 'breadwinner'. Women also joined the workforce, but roles 'appropriate' for their gender, like textiles.
        
        Women's suffrage: particularly Western. Activists like Susan Anthony and Emmeline championed the right to vote for women.
        
        Education: Women's access to higher education began to increase, though was still limited compared to men.
      - 20th Century
        
        World wars: During WW1 and WW2, women took on roles traditionally reserved for men, in factories, offices, and farms.
        
        Post-war era: Strong push for women to return to 'traditional roles'. The 1950s, especially in the US, is often viewed as a period of conservatism regarding gender roles.
        
        Second wave feminism: 1960s and 1970s. Figures like Betty Friedan and Gloria Steinem. Highlighted issues like reproductive rights, domestic violence, and women in the workplace.
        
        Women in the workforce: Dual-income families increased.
        
        Legal milestones: Eg. Roe v Wade, US, in 1973
      - 21st Century
        
        Continued progress: Inequalities persist. Eg. wage gaps and limited representation in leadership roles.
        
        METOO movement: Highlighting issues of sexual harassment and assault.
        
        Shift in family dynamics: Diverse family structures. Eg. same sex couples, single parents, and stay at home fathers.
- - - - Creation narratives
        
        Genesis 1:26-27
        
        Image Dei: 'male and female he created them'
        
        Equality between men and women
        
        Genesis 2
        
        Adam is created first, Eve being created from his 'rib'
        
        Some see this as signifying the equality and complementary nature of the two genders
        
        Others see this as indication of Eve's secondary status
        
        The Fall
        
        Consequences of their actions: Eve's pain in childbirth and her relationship with Adam
        
        Some infer a divinely ordained hierarchy
      - Purity laws
        
        Menstruation and childbirth
        
        Leviticus 12 and 15: guidelines regarding ceremonial 'uncleanliness' of women during menstruation and after childbirth
        
        Influence current views on the 'purity' or 'impurity' of women's bodies
        
        Dietary restrictions
        
        Broader theme of purity
        
        Early Christians wrestled with these laws. Eg. Acts 10.
        
        Same logic is applied to Gentiles
        
        Paul and purity laws
        
        Galatians: argues against strict adherence to these laws, emphasising faith in Christ over the works of law
      - Paul's egalitarian approach: Galatians 3:28
        
        Emphasises faith in Christ of the adherence to Jewish law
        
        'There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ'
        
        Underscores equality of all believers
      - Paul's traditional approach: 1 Timothy 2:11-15
        
        'A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to issue authority over a man; she must be quiet'
        
        Hierarchal views of gender roles
        
        Important to consider cultural and historical context
    - - Galatians 3:28
        
        Context
        
        Emphasises Christ as the primary identity maker, over and above ethnic, social, or gender distinctions
        
        Addressing the Galatian church's issues, where there was tension between Jewish and Gentile believers regarding the observance of the Mosaic law.
        
        Interpretation
        
        Spiritual equality
        
        Translates to practical roles within the church and home
      - Household Codes
        
        Ephesians 5:21-33
        
        Colossians 3:18-25
        
        Guidelines for Christian households
        
        Wives and husbands
        
        Encourages women to love their husbands as Christ loved the church - a sacraficial, self-giving love
        
        Mutual submission (Ephesians 5:21-33)
        
        Cultural context
        
        Household codes reflect a structure familiar to the Greco-Roman world
      - Women in leadership
        
        Paul's letters provide evidence of women holding significant roles in early Christian communities
        
        Phoebe
        
        Romans 16:1-2
        
        'Deacon'
        
        Held a position of respect and responsibility
        
        Priscilla (and Aquila)
        
        Acts 18; Romans 16:3; 1 Corinthians 16:19
        
        Instrumental in teaching Apollos
        
        Close associates of Paul
        
        Junia
        
        Romans 16:7
        
        'Outstanding amongst the apostles'
        
        Limitations on woman's roles
        
        1 Timothy 2:8-15
        
        Restrictions on women's leadership
    - - Apocryphal texts
        
        Gospel of Mary
        
        Portrays Mary Magdalene as a close disciple of Jesus
        
        Suggests at least some Christian communities recognised leadership of women.
        
        Gospel of Philip
        
        Close relationship between Mary Magdalene and Jesus
        
        Some even suggest a romantic relationship
        
        Gospel of Thomas
        
        This collection of sayings attributed to Jesus includes some statements about gender
        
        Eg. Peter says women are not worthy of life and Jesus seems to suggest that a woman can be made worthy by becoming like a man
      - Church fathers
        
        Tertullian
        
        Praised women for their courage as martyrs
        
        'On the Apparel of Women': cautioned Christian women against wearing cosmetics or elaborate clothing
        
        Believed women were susceptible to temptation
        
        Augistine
        
        Strong advocate for sexual restraint snd saw sexual desire as a consequence of original sin
        
        Saw marriage as good for the purpose of procreation
        
        John Chrysostom
        
        Praised the virtues of noble women from the Bible and celebrated the spiritual capabilities of women
        
        Still upheld traditional views on the roles of men and women
        
        Clement of Alexandria
        
        Believed men and women were equal in spiritual value
        
        Maintained men and women had different roles and functions, with men being rational and women emotional
    - - Hellenistic Dualiam
        
        Platonism
        
        Distinction between the eternal, unchanging world of Forms or Ideas and the temporal, changing world of material things
        
        Christian Synthesis
        
        The notion of the body as a temporal vessel housing an immortal soul was shaped by dualistic thought
        
        Sexuality and Asceticism
        
        Because the body and its desires were often viewed as lessor to spiritual progress, there arose a movement within early Christianity that emphasised ascetic practices, including sexual abstinence.
      - Roman household structure
        
        Paterfamilias
        
        Authority of the father
        
        His word is law within the household
        
        Pauline household codes
        
        Wives instructed to submit to their husbands
        
        Husbands instructed to love their wives as Christ loved the Church (Ephesians 5:22-33)
        
        Reflect Roman household structure, but with Christian elements
        
        Influence and adaptation
        
        Maintaining order and avoiding societal disruption, while also infusing these relationships with Christian love and mutual respect
        
        Early Christians needed to navigate social expectations in the Roman Empire
    - - Elevating women
        
        Mary of Bethany
        
        Luke 10:38-42
        
        Mary sits at Jesus' feet - a position typically associated with discipleship
        
        Jesus also defends her right to learn
        
        Showcases Jesus' approval of women taking active roles as disciples and learners
        
        The Samaritan woman at the wall
        
        John 4:4-42
        
        Jesus breaks social norms and speaks to her, and even reveals his identity as the Messiah
        
        The woman becomes an evangelist
      - Female followers
        
        Mary Magdalene
        
        Present at the crucifixion
        
        First to witness the empty tomb and the resurrected Jesus (John 20:1-18)
        
        Joanna, Susanna, and other women
        
        Luke 8:1-3
        
        Women not just passive listeners but active supporters
        
        Other notable interactions
        
        The woman with the bleeding disorder (Mark 5:25-34)
        
        Despite being ritually unclean, she approaches Jesus in faith
        
        He heals her
        
        The Syrophoenician/Canaanite women (Mark 7:24-30; Matthew 15:21-28)
        
        He granted her request, showcasing her as an exemplar of faith
    - - Virginity as virtue
        
        Influence of Hellenistic philosophy
        
        Platonic thought which prized the spiritual/intellectual over the material/physical
        
        The body, with its passions and desires, was seen as something to be disciplined in the pursuit of a spiritual purity
        
        Martyrdom and asceticism
        
        In periods without active persecution, ascetic practices, including celibacy, became ways for believers to demonstrate their radical commitment to Christ
        
        Models of virginity
        
        Celebrated figures like Thecia
      - Sexuality
        
        Marriage
        
        Honourable and good
        
        1 Corinthians 7
        
        Shift in perspective as asceticism gained prominence
        
        Celibacy
        
        Preferable state for Church fathers
        
        Allowed a believer to be wholly dedicated to God without the distractions or responsibilities of familiar obligations
        
        Church fathers
        
        While Augustine believed sexual relations within marriage were a necessary means for procreation, he also saw them as a manifestation of original sin
        
        Monasticism
      - Virginity as a liberating choice
        
        Autonomy and agency: For some women, the choice to remain celibate provided a degree of autonomy and agency uncommon in the ancient world; exercise leadership, spiritual authority, and independence.
        
        Prominent virgin martyrs: Agnes; Cecilia; Lucy
      - Celibacy as an equalising principle
        
        Men and women alike: Men were encouraged to resist 'carnal' desires and women to preserve their virginity.
      - New roles and responsibilities
        
        Deaconesses and ascetic leaders: Celibate women often took up significant roles in early Christian communities
        
        Abbesses and monastic leaders
      - Potential for ambivalence
        
        Idealisation and alienation: Could inadvertently diminish the value and worth of women who did not or could not maintain such a state
        
        Body and spirit dualism: Given that women's bodies were often associated with reproduction and sexuality, this could lead to negative or ambivalent views about women and their physicality.
      - Protection or limitation
        
        Purity and protection: Tied to notions of protection and safety in an era where a woman's honour was closely tied to her sexual purity; provided protection against potential dishonour
        
        Potential for control: Mechanism to control women's bodies and choices
  - - - Genesis 1:27 asserts the equal value of men and women: 'God created mankind in his image... able and female he created them'.
      - Genesis 2-3 has often been interpreted to subordinate women
    - - 1 Corinthians 14:34-35
        
        Paul advices women to be silent in churches
      - Ephesians 5:22-24
        
        Wives are called to submit to their husbands
      - 1 Timothy 2:8-15
        
        Paul suggests women should learn quietly and submissively and should not assert authority over men
        
        Suggests women are more susceptible to deception
        
        Used to argue against women's ordination and pastoral leadership
    - - Distinct laws for men and women
      - Eg. Purity laws in Leviticus
    - - Leviticus 18:22
      - Romans 1:26-27
      - Christian stances on LGBTQ+ issues
    - - 'virtuous woman' or 'woman of noble character' has been upheld as an ideal for womanhood in traditional interpretations
      - Praises a woman's industriousness, wisdom, and piety
  - - - Significance: Central place in Christian history; faith and obedience
      - Theological importance: Role in the incarnation; honoured in both Orthodox and Catholic traditions
      - Role Model: humility; faith; discipleship
    - - 'Deacon': Romans 16:1
      - Patron and helper
    - - First convent in Europe: Acts 16
      - Prominent role: Hosted Paul and his apostles and her house may have served as an early house church.
    - - Outstanding apostle: Romans 16:7
      - Historical debate: Some have interpreted her as a female apostle, whilst some interpretations have attempted to diminish her role